Southern  Branch 
of  the 

University  of  California 

Los  Angeles 


Form  L  I 


This  book  is 

DUE  on  the  last  date  st 

amped  below 

^mi-i  ^  ^  i92§j 

MAY  13  t93| 

MAR     5  1934  ^ 

K^t>^' 

/ 

l(PP  d    mi 

'  ^OV  1 4  1931. 

JW*  8     ^^^ 

MAY2  819B2 

'JAN  1  3  1964 

^  • 

^ 
*' 

Form  L-9-15m-8,'24 

Ubc  IRural  Uext^Booft  Series 

Edited  by  L.  H.  BAILEY 


FARM   MANAGEMENT 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK    •    BOSTON   •    CHICAGO   •    DALLAS 
ATLANTA   •    SAN    FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  Limited 

LONDON  •  BOMBAY  •  CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE  MACMILLAN  CO.  OF  CANADA,  Ltd. 

TORONTO 


Digitized  by  tine  Internet  Arciiive 

in  2007  witii  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


littp://www.arcliive.org/details/farmmanagementOOwarriala 


Etc  Eural  EtxUBooh  <Serieg 

Lyon  and  Fippin,  Principles  of  Soil  Man- 
agement. 
G.  F.  Warren,  Elements  of  Agriculture. 

A.  R.  Mann,  Beginnings  in  Agriculture. 
J.  F.  DuGGAR,  Southern  Field  Crops. 

B.  M.    DuGGAR,    Plant    Physiology,    with 
Special  Reference  to  Plant  Production. 

G.  F.  Warren,  Farm  Management. 

M.   W.   Harper,    Animal    Husbandry   for 

Schools. 
E.  G.  Montgomery,  The  Corn  Crops. 
H.  J.  Wheeler,  Manures  and  Fertilizers. 


FARM    MANAGEMENT 


BY 

G.   F.  WARREN,   Ph.D. 

PROFESSOR  OF  FARM  .MANAGEMENT,  NEW  YORK  STATE  COLLEGE 
OF  AGRICULTURE  AT  CORNELL  UNIVERSITY 


The  requirements  of  a  good  farmer  are  at  least  four : 

The  ability  to  make  a  full  and  comfortable  living  from  the  land ; 

to  rear  a  family  carefully  and  well ; 

to  be  of  good  service  to  the  community  ; 

to  leave  the  farm  more  productive  than  it  was  when  he  took  it. 

—  L.  H.  Bailet. 


Neto  gork 

THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY 

1914 

All  rights  reserved 


C!oPTBIGHT,    1913, 

Bt  the  macmillan  company. 

Set  up  and  electrotyped      Published  April,  1913. 
Reprinted  September,    November,    1913. 
February,   July,    1914- 


S5(^  1 


PREFACE 

Farm  Management  is  the  study  of  the  business  prin- 
ciples in  farming.  It  may  be  defined  as  the  science  of  the 
organization  and  management  of  a  farm  enterprise  for  the 
purpose  of  securing  the  greatest  continuous  profit. 

Successful  farming  requires  good  judgment  in  choosing  a 
farm  and  in  deciding  on  a  type  of  farming.  It  demands 
clear  business  organization  and  management  for  the  efficient 
use  of  capital,  labor,  horses,  and  machinery.  It  requires 
good  judgment  in  buying  and  selling. 

The  change  from  cheap  land,  hand  tools,  and  farming  to 
raise  one's  own  food  and  clothing,  to  farming  as  a  commer- 
cial undertaking  has  come  upon  us  so  suddenly  that  business 
principles  are  not  always  well  understood  by  farmers.  Nor 
do  those  who  understand  the  application  of  such  principles 
to  city  conditions  often  know  how  to  apply  them  on  the 
farm. 

Long  ages  of  experience  and  a  generation  of  scientific  re- 
search have  resulted  in  a  fund  of  popular  knowledge  on  how 
to  raise  crops  and  animals.  But  there  is  less  background  of 
tradition  concerning  business  methods  on  the  farm,  and  col- 
leges have  given  little  attention  to  this  kind  of  problems. 
The  success  of  the  individual  farmer  is  as  much  dependent 
on  the  application  of  business  principles  as  it  is  on  crop 
yields  and  production  of  animals. 

The  best  way  to  find  out  what  methods  of  farm  organiza- 
tion and  management  are  most  successful  is  to  study  the 
methods  now  used  and  the  profits  secured  on  large  numbers 
of  farms,  and  determine  how  the  more  successful  ones  differ 


VI  PREFACE 

from  the  less  successful,  and  find  to  which  of  the  differences 
the  success  is  due.  After  such  principles  are  found,  they 
need  to  be  tested  by  use  in  reorganizing  farms. 

The  conclusions  in  this  book  are  based  on  investigations 
of  the  kind  given  above,  and  on  cost  accounts,  census  data, 
travel  and  study  in  different  parts  of  the  United  States  and 
experience  in  farming.  It  is  hoped  that  the  conclusions 
may  be  of  use  to  farmers  and  students. 

In  preparing  the  book  the  writer  has  received  much  aid 
from  K.  C.  Livermore,  who  helped  in  working  out  some  of 
the  data  and  read  all  the  manuscript,  and  with  whom  many 
of  the  points  have  been  discussed.  Acknowledgment  is  also 
due  to  A.  L.  Thompson  and  C.  E.  Ladd  for  reading  the 
manuscript  and  making  many  helpful  suggestions. 

The  Figures  2,  54,  55,  and  56  were  secured  from  the 
Minnesota  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  Figures  8,  70, 
and  71  were  furnished  by  the  Office  of  Farm  Management, 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.  Figures  51  and 
107  were  furnished  by  F.  E.  Dean  of  Grand  Junction,  Colo- 
rado. W.  0.  Strong,  Grove,  Virginia,  furnished  Figure  69. 
Several  figures  were  furnished  by  the  New  York  State 
College  of  Agriculture. 

G.  F.  WARREN. 

Ithaca,  New  York, 
February  22,  1913. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  1 
SHALL   I   BE   A   FARMER? 

Personal  Characteristics  Desirable  for  a  Farmer; 
The  Farmer  as  a  Business  Man 
The  Farmer  as  a  Mechanic     . 
The  Farmer  as  a  Naturalist  . 
The  Fanner  as  a  Skilled  Laborer 
Experience  Necessary  for  Success 
The  Farm  a  Home  Enterprise 
The  Farm  not  the  Place  for  the  Inefficient 
Summary  of  Personal  Traits  of  Successful  Farmers 

Profits  to  be  JLxpected  in  Farming  : 

Comparison  of  Fanning  with  Other  Occupations 
Ways  of  Measuriusi;  Profit      .... 
Comparison  of  Labor  Incume  with  City  Salaries 
Labor  Incomes  Made  by  Farmers  . 
Profits  on  Real  F^state    . 
Safety  of  the  Investment 
Estates  Left  by  Farmers 
Summary  of  Profits  in  Farming 

Cost  of  Living  on  Farms  : 

Cost  of  Living  on  Farms  and  in  Cities 
Products  Furnished  by  the  Farm  . 
Cost  of  Living  on  Farms 


The  Farm  from  the  Standpoint  of  the  Hired  Man 
The  Farm  from  the  Standpoint  of  the  Tenant  . 
Farm  Investments       ....... 

The  Back-to-the-land  Movement  : 

The  Aims  of  the  Movement   ..... 

With  Better  Farming  Fewer  Farmers  are  Needed 

Why  the  Farm  Boy  Went  to  Town 

The  Remedy  is  Automatic      .... 

Movement  to  Cities  must  Continue 

How  then  may  the  Citv  obtain  Cheaper  Food  ? 

■  Back-to-the-village  Movement         .         . 

vii 


1 
2 
3 
4 
6 
7 
11 
13 


14 
15 
16 
16 
18 
19 
20 
20 


21 
23 
25 

26 
27 
28 

29 
30 
32 
33 
34 
34 
35 


Vlll  CONTENTS 


The  Farm  as  a  Home  for  Persons  Otherwise  Employed r 

The  Farm  as  a  flome 36 

An  Example  of  a  City  Man  on  a  Farm  ....  38 

Some  Thoughts  for  the  Farm  Boy 41 


CHAPTER   2 

TYPES   OF   FARMING 

Definitions  : 

Factors  that  Determine  the  Type  of  Farming        ...  43 

Examples  of  the  Influence  of  Climate,  Soil,  and  Topog- 
raphy : 

Corn 44 

Cotton 45 

Oats 46 

Potatoes 47 

Grass  Crops 47 

Apples 49 

Truck  Crops 50 

Topography 50 

Animals          ..........  50 

Relation  of  Transportation  to  Type  of  Farming  : 

General  Principles           ........  51 

Transportation  and  Crop  Prices  and  Crop  Production  .         ,  62 

Relation  of  Cost  of  Production  to  l)isD<isition  of  Crops          .  55 
Transportation  as  Affecting  Hog  Production          .         .         .55 

Transportation  as  Affectii-g  Beef  Production          .         .         .  59 
Relation  of  Transportation  to  Sheep  Production   .         .         .61 

Transportation  in  Relation  to  Horse  Production   ...  62 

Relation  of  Transportation  to  Dairying          ....  63 

Transportation  and  Egg  Production       .....  66 

Fruit  and  Vegetables  in  Relation  to  Transportation      .         .  68 

Marginal  Regions 69 

Relation   of   Transportation   to   Distance   to   Market   or 
Shipping  Point  : 

General  Principles  .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .71 

Cost  of  Hauling 72 

Cost  of  Hauling  Milk 73 

Relation  of  Supply  and  Market  Demand  to  Type  of  Farm- 
ing : 

Relation  of  Yield  per  Acre  to  Value  of  the  Crop  ...  76 

Variation  in  Relative  Values  of  Farm  Products    ...  81 


CONTENTS 


IX 


Cycles  of  Over  and  Under  Production  and  Ways  of  Fore- 
telling Them 

Special  Demands  of  Certain  Markets 

Supplying  the  Local  Market 

Growing  Products  for  Home  Use 

Relation  of  Type  of  Farming  to  Competing  Types     . 

Relation  of  Land  Values  to  Type  of  Farming    . 

Relation  of  Capital  to  Type  of  Farming  : 

Adjustment  of  Type  of  Farming  to  Capital  .  .  .  . 
Relation  of  Type  of  Farming  to  Profits  with  Varying  Capital 
Period  of  Investment 

Relation  of  Labor  to  Type  of  Farming        .         .         .         . 
Effects    of    Weeds,    Insects,    and    Diseases    on    Type    of 

Farming 

Relation  of  the  Type  of  Farming  to  that  of  the  Neigh- 
bors : 
The  Value  of  Community  Experience    . 
Community  Labor  Supply 
Advertising  Value  of  the  Neighborhood 
Difficulty  of  Changing  the  Type     . 

Difficulty  of  Determining  the  Best  Type 
The  Personal  Factor        .... 


83 
90 
91 
92 

92 
93 

94 
95 
95 


97 


99 
100 

101 
102 


CHAPTER   3 


DIVERSIFIED   AND   SPECIALIZED   FARMING 

Definitions           ..........  104 

Number  of  Specialized  Farms          ......  105 

Comparative  Merits  of  Specialized  and  Diversified  Farm- 
ing : 

Merits  of  Each  Type 107 

Diversified  Farming  and  Crop  Rotation         ....  107 

Diversified  Farming  Lessens  Risk  of  Total  Failure        •         .  108 

Diversified  Farming  may  Distribute  Income          .         .         .  108 

Diversified  Farming  may  Distribute  Labor    ....  108 

Cases  in  which  Specialized  Farming  may  Pay        .        .        .  109 

Seasonal  Distribution  of  Labor: 

Providing  a  Full  Year's  Work 109 

Distribution  of  Labor  on  Alfalfa    .         .         .         .         .         .110 

Distribution  of  Labor  on  Corn  and  Cotton    ....  112 

Distribution  of  Labor  on  Oats 114 

Distribution  of  Labor  on  Wheat 117 


CONTENTS 


Distribution  of  Labor  on  Potatoes,  Cabbages,  and  Apples 
Distribution  of  Labor  on  Beef  Cattle,  Sheep,  and  Hogs 
Distribution  of  Labor  on  Poultry 

Diversified  Farming  on  Dairy  Farms  : 

Labor  Distribution  in  Dairying 

Other  Reasons  for  Diversified  Farming  on  Dairy  Farms 
Relation   of  Diversified  Farming  to  Profits  on  Wholesale 
Market  Milk  Farms    ....... 

Combining  Farming  with  Other  Enterprises 

Extra  Labor  Available  in  Summer        .... 

Examples  of  Sdccessful  Types  of  Farming  : 

Successful  Farms  in  New  York 

Successful  Types  of  Farming  in  Various  Regions  . 


CHAPTER  4 
INTENSIVE  AND  EXTENSIVE  FARMING 

Wats  of  Measuring  Profit  : 

Ways  of  Measuring  Profit 

Theory  of  Limitation  of  Land        ..... 
Land  a  Small  Part  of  the  Cost  of  Production 
Profits  per  Acre  and  Profits  per  Farmer 

Intensive  and  Extensive  Enterprises  : 

Comparison  of  Intensive  and  Extensive  Enterprises 
Relation  of  Intensive  and  Extensive  Crops  to  Capital   . 
Relation  of  Crop  to  Soil  and  Treatment 

Intensive  and  Extensive  Methods  : 

How  Large  a  Crop  does  it  Pay  to  Grow  ?       .        .        . 

Increased  Production  due  to  Natural  Causes 

Weather  Risk  and  Intensive  Methods    .... 

Business  Interpretation  of  Fertilizer  Tests     . 

An  Example  of  Cost  Accounts  in  the  Use  of  Fertilizers 

Crop  Yields  on  Successful  Farms 

Comparative  Importance  of  Production  and  Size  of  Business 

Comparative  Importance  of  Yields,  Size,  and  Diversity 

Raising  the  Maximum  Yield  of  Potatoes 
Intensive  and  Extensive  Methods  of  Dairying  : 

Adaptation  to  Conditions 

The  Soiling  System  —  Keeping  the  Greatest  Number  of  Cows 
per  Acre 

Receipts  per  Cow  and  Profits 

Intensive  Methods  Should  Be  Properly  Balanced     . 


CONTENTS  XI 

CHAPTER   5 
MAINTAINING  THE   FERTILITY  OF  THE   LAND 

PA6I 

Are  our  Crop  Yields  Decreasing  ? 183 

Ways  in  which  Productivity  May  Be  Decreased         .         .  184 
Maintaining  the  Organic  Matter  : 

Importance  of  Organic  Matter 186 

Crop  Residues 186 

Farm  Manure  as  a  Source  of  Organic  Matter        .        .        .  187 

Pasturing  off  Crops 188 

Green  Manure 188 

Maintaining  the  Nitrogen  Supply 195 

Maintaining  the  Mineral  Matter           .....  196 
Amount  and  Value  of  Farm  Manure  Produced: 

Fertilizing  Value  of  Feed  and  of  Manure       ....  197 

Amount  and  Value  of  Manure  Produced  by  Farm  Animals  197 

Methods  of  Handling  Manure         ......  199 

Best  Way  of  Maintaining  Fertility  a  Business  Question  .  200 

CHAPTER   6 

THE    FARM   MANAGEMENT   POINT   OF   VIEW   ON 
SOME   LIVE-STOCK   PROBLEMS 
Amount  of  Live-stock  to  Keep  : 

Live-stock  Largely  Produced  by  Cheap  Food        .        .        .  203 

Live-stock  Largely  Produced  by  Cheap  Time         .         .         .  206 

Live-stock  Produced  on  a  Low  Margin  of  Profit    .         .         .  207 
Keeping  Stock  Enough  to  Eat  All  the  Hay  and  Grain  vs. 

Always  Having  Feed  Enough  for  the  Stock        .        .        .  207 

Animal  Unit 209 

Feeding  Animals  : 

Balanced  Rations 212 

Short  Method  of  Balancing  Rations  for  Cows        .        .        .  212 

"  Roughing  "  Animals  through  Winter          ....  213 

Feed  Units 216 

Animal  Records  : 

Milk  Records 217 

Short  Methods  of  Weighing  Milk 219 

Butter  Fat  Tests 219 

Production  Required  for  Profit 220 

Egg  Records 221 

Animal  Records 222 


xii  CONTENTS 


PAGE 

Relation  of  Size  of  Animal  to  Efficibncy: 

Size  of  Cows  and  Profits 222 

Size  of  Horses 226 

Size  of  Animal  and  Meat  Production 227 

PuRK-BREi)  vs.  Grade  Stock  : 

Profits  from  Pure  bred  Stock 227 

"Grading  up"  Pure-breds 230 

Pure-bred  Poultry 230 

Depreciation  on  Live-stock: 

Depreciation  on  Cattle 231 

Depreciation  on  Horses 233 

Depreciation  on  Mules ,         .         .  234 

Depreciation  on  Sheep 235 

Depreciation  on  Hogs 235 

Depreciation  on  Hens 235 

Increasing  Value  of  Young  Stock 237 


CHAPTER  7 

SIZE   OF  FARMS 

The  American  Family-farm 239 

How  Large  Should  a  Family-farm  Be  ?  .        .        .        .  241 

Relation  of  Size  of  Farm  to  Farm  Efficiency: 

Size  of  Farm  and  Profits 243 

Relation  of  Size  of  Farm  to  Efficiency  in  Use  of  Labor         .  250 

Relation  of  Size  of  Farm  to  Efficiency  in  ITse  of  Horses        .  256 

Relation  of  Size  of  Farm  to  Efficiency  in  Use  of  Machinery  257 

Relation  of  Size  of  Farm  to  Efficiency  in  Use  of  Capital         .  260 

Relation  of  Size  of  Farm  to  Size  of  Fields      .   ■      .         .         .  262 

Relation  of  Size  of  Farm  to  Economy  in  Buying  and  Selling  262 

Are  the  Results  Due  to  the  Man  ? 263 

Best  Size  of  Farm 264 

Profits  on  Very  Large  Farms 266 

Relation  of  Size  of  Farm  to  Crop  Yields        ....  267 

Relation  of  Size  of  Farm  to  Keeping  Boys  on  the  Farm        .  268 


CHAPTER  8 

SIZE  OF    FARMS  AND   OTHER    FACTORS   IN   DIF- 
FERENT REGIONS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 

A  County  in  the  Cotton  Belt 270 

Cotton  Farms  of  White  Farmers 274 


CONTENTS 


Xlll 


PAGK 

\  Truck-growing  Region 275 

An  Irrigated  Region 276 

A  Hilly  Dairy  Region  in  New  York 276 

A  Dairy  Region  in  Illinois 278 

Farms  in  the  Corn-belt  . 278 

The  Hard  Winter  Wheat  Region 282 

-A  Spring  Wheat  Region 285 

A  Dry  Farming  Region 286 

Size  of  Farms  in  Some  Typical  States 287 

Conclusions  on  the  Size  of  Farm 289 


CHAPTER  9 
CAPITAL 


Relation  of  Capital  to  Profits 
Distribution  of  Capital  .         .        .        . 
Relation  of  Capital  to  Type  of  Farming 
Economy  of  Cash  Purchases 

Farm  Mortgages 

Keeping  One's  Credit  Good   . 
Agricultural  Credit  a  Public  Question    . 

"W  ITS  OF  Farming  avith  Small  Capital  : 


290 

294 
295 
295 
297 
298 
299 


Ways  of  Securing  Capital 303 

Changes  from  Hired-man  to  Tenant  and  Owner    .        .        .  304 

More  Capital  Necessary  than  Formerly  ....  305 

First  Get  an  Education 305 

Starting  as  a  Hired-man         .......  307 

Starting  as  a  Tenant 309 

Effect  of  Rising  Land  Values  on  Buying  Land      .        .        .  312 

Cash  and  Share  Rental 313 

Farming  as  a  Part  Owner       .......  313 

Types  of  Farming  with  Small  Capital 314 


Life  Insurance  for  Farmers  : 
Forms  of  Life  Insurance 
Typical  Results  with  Different  Policies 


315 
318 


CHAPTER   10 
METHODS  OF  RENTING  LAND 


Basis  of  Rental 

.     821 

Methods  of  Share  Renting 

.     323 

Share  of  Crops 

.     823 

Share  of  Receipts 

.     824 

Everything  Furnished  by  the  Landlord 

.     325 

Systems  too  Rigid          .... 

.     326 

Relation  of  Systems  of  Rental  to  Profits 

.    327 

XIV  CONTENTS 


CHAPTER   11 

FARM  LABOR 

Man  Labor  :  p^qb 

Why  Farm  Labor  is  Scarce 330 

The  Labor  Problem  for  the  Individual 331 

Using  Labor  Efficiently 332 

Work  for  Stormy  Days 337 

Winter  Work 337 

Hours  of  Labor 339 

Management  of  Men 340 

Profit  Sharing 342 

Farm  Managers 343 

Horse  Labor  : 

Cost  of  Horse  Labor 344 

Ways  of  Saving  Horse  Labor 346 

How  Much  Work  Should  a  Horse  Do  ?         .        .        .        .348 

Substitution  of  Engines  for  Horses  ; 

Engines  Adapted  to  Heavy  Work 349 

Engines  Must  Reduce  Work  at  the  Season  of  Greatest  Pres- 
sure      349 

Productive  Work  Units 360 


CHAPTER   12 
FARM  EQUIPMENT 

The  Maintenance  of  Equipment 855 

Depreciation  on  Machinery 856 

Machinery  Costs 357 

Duty  of  Machinery 859 

What  Machinery  to  Buy                 '  861 


CHAPTER  13 

FARM  LAYOUT 
Field  Arrangement: 

Size  and  Shape  of  Fields 865 

Distance  to  Fields 868 

Four  Methods  of  Farm  Layout 370 

Locating  the  Farmstead  off  the  Highway      ....  374 

Present  Conditions  on  Farms 374 

Rearranging  Farms 377 


CONTENTS  XV 


FASB 

Pastures  and  Fences: 

Construction  ..........  385 

Lanes 385 

Permanent  vs.  Rotated  Pastures 386 

Field  Fences 387 

The  Farmstead: 

Location  of  Farmstead 388 

Tlie  Farmyard 389 

The  Garden 391 

Farm  Buildings  : 

Relation  of  Buildings  to  the  Farm 394 

Capital  in  Buildings        ........  396 

Arrangement  for  Convenience        ......  397 

ReaiTangement  of  Buildings 398 

The  Farmhouse 399 


CHAPTER   14 
CROPPING   SYSTEMS 


Reasons  for  Crop  Rotation     .         .         .         .         , 
Characteristics  of  a  Good  Cropping  System   . 
Crop  Rotations  Used  in  Different  Regions 
Two  Rotations  on  One  Farm  .         .         .         , 

Fixed  Cropping  Systems  with  Irregular  Acreages 
Combining  Separate  Fields  for  Crop  Rotation 
Relation  of  Cropping  and  Feeding  Systems   . 


402 
405 
406 
409 
410 
412 
414 


CHAPTER   15 

MARKETING   FARM   PRODUCTS 

Time  to  Sell  Products : 

Cost  of  Holding  Products 417 

Shrinkage  of  Farm  Products  ......  417 

Prices  in  Different  Months     .......  420 

Conclusions  on  the  Best  Time  to  Sell 422 

Ways  of  Selling  Products  : 

Retailing  vs.  Wholesaling 424 

Selling  on  Commission   .         .         . 425 

Farm  Auctions 426 


XVi  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER   16 
FARM    RECORDS   AND   ACCOUNTS 

PAGE 

Kinds  of  Accounts  : 

Accounts  as  a  Means  of  Studying  the  Business     .        .         .  428 

Accounts  with  Persons  or  Firms  : 

Object  of  Bookkeeping 431 

Methods  of  Bookkeeping 431 

Annual  Inventory  : 

Objects  of  an  Inventory 432 

How  and  VVhen  to  Take  an  Inventory 43:) 

Receipts  and  Expenses      ........  430 

Miscellaneous  Accounts  ........  437 

Cost  Accounts  with  Onk  or  More  Crops  or  Kinds  of  Ani- 
mals : 

Objects  of  Cost  Accounts 437 

Items  with  which  Crops  Must  Be  Charged  and  Oedited       .  438 

Items  with  which  Aniiniils  Mast  Be  Charged  and  Credited  .  438 

An  Account  witli  Potatoes     ....                 .         .  439 

CHAPTER   17 

A  COMPLETE  SET  OF  COST  ACCOUNTS 

Essential  Facts  for  Cost  Accounts 441 

Methods  of  Cost  Accounting 441 

A  Complete  Set  of  Cost  'Accounts  as  Kept  by  a  Farmer  .  441 

Interpretation  of  Results  : 

Cautions  in  Interpreting  Results    ......  443 

Results  on  Crops 472 

Cattle 474 

Hens 475 

Horses 475 

Equipment 476 

Other  Uses  of  Accounts 470 

Details  of  This  and  Other  Methods   of   Accounting   and 
Principles  Involved  : 

Kinds  of  Books  or  Record  Sheets 477 

Journals  and  Day  Books 478 

Double  or  Single  Entry 479 

Index 480 


CONTENTS  xrii 

PAGE 

Other  Forms  of  Work  Report 481 

Estimating  Values 484 

Accounts  with  Fields 484 

Farm  Account 485 

Manure  and  Fertilizers 485 

Equipment 486 

Labor 487 

Horses 487 

Hay  Seed 488 

Double  Cropping 488 

Interest 489 

General  Expense 490 

Accounts  of  Convenience 490 

Personal  Accounts          .    ,     .         .         .         .         .         .         .  491 

Order  of  Closing  Books 491 

Accounts  on  Tenant  Farms   .......  493 

CHAPTER  18 

CHOICE   OF   A    REGION 

Prosperity  of  the  Commukity          ......  494 

Climate  : 

Change  of  Climate 496 

Compensating  Cycles  in  Weather 497 

Rainfall 498 

Evaporation 500 

Winds 502 

Hail 503 

Length  of  Growing  Season 503 

Fertility  of  the  Soil: 

Importance  of  Fertility 603 

Use  of  Soil  Maps .605 

Value  of  Chemical  Analysis 505 

Plants  as  Indicators  of  Fertility 511 

Use  of  Census  Figures 513 

Comparative  Advantages  of  New  and  Old  Regions        .         .  613 

Land  Prices 513 

CHAPTER   19 
CHOOSING   AND   BUYING   A   FARM 

Importance  of  Securing  a  Good  Farm 617 

Size  of  Farm 517 

Area  in  Crops 517 

The  Farm  Layout 518 

The  Lay  of  the  Land 518 


XVIU  CONTENTS 


PAOB 

Fertility  of  the  Soil 521 

Physical  Properties  of  the  Soil 622 

Drainage 522 

Water  for  Irrigation 523 

Condition 623 

Water  Supply 523 

Improvements 523 

Climate 624 

Healthfulness 524 

Roads  and  Markets .  524 

Neighbors 525 

Taxes 525 

Community  Improvements    .......  625 

Prospective  Development       .......  526 

Map  of  the  Farm 528 

Score  Card  for  Farms     ........  528 

Effect  of  Amount  of  Money  Available    .....  528 

Cato's  Advice  on  Buying  a  Farm  .         .         .  '       .         .         .  6.30 

Buying  tlie  Farm    .........  631 

Selecti(Mi  of  Farms  for  Schools  and  Colleges  ....  533 

Selection  of  Farms  for  Cliaritable  and  Reformatory  Institu- 
tions     533 


CHAPTER  20 

SOME    SUCCESSFUL   FARMS 

Characteristics   of    Successful   Farms   and    how    to    Find 

ThexM  ..........  636 

A  Successful  Dairy  and  Crop  Farm       .....  637 

A  Successful  General  Farm    .......  541 

A  Successful  Crop  Farm,  Managed  by  a  Tenant         .         .  546 

A  Successful  Poultry  Farm,  Managed  by  a  Woman  ,         .  651 

Record  of  a  Year's  Business  on  a  Farm       ....  563 

Summary  of  Most  Important  Factors  Affecting  Profits   .  662 


TABLES 

Average  Farm  Values  of  Live-stock,  by  Years 
Average  Farm  Prices  of  Crops,  by  Years    , 
Average  Wholesale  Prices  in  Cities,   by  Years 
Ten-year  Average  Farm  Prices,  by  States  . 
Average  Wholesale  Prices  in  Cities,   by  Months 


666 
668 
571 
674 

678 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


^^::^ 


FARM  MAJs^AGEME^T 

CHAPTER  1 
SHALL  I  BE  A  FARMER? 

When  one  is  trying  to  decide  as  to  the  best  occupation 
to  follow,  he  should  first  consider  the  personal  characteris- 
tics that  are  necessary  for  success  in  the  kind  of  work 
that  he  proposes  to  undertake.  Some  persons,  who  may 
succeed  well  in  the  very  specialized  callings  in  the  town 
or  city,  may  not  be  qualified  for  farming,  because  farming 
calls  for  such  versatile  ability.  The  farmer  is  a  combina- 
tion of  business  man,  mechanic,  naturalist,  and  laborer. 

1.  The  farmer  as  a  business  man.  —  In  the  days  of 
our  fathers  the  farm  family  raised  practically  everything 
that  it  needed.  The  few  things  not  raised  were  received 
in  trade  at  the  village  store.  A  few  dollars  a  year  were 
sufficient  for  the  family  needs.  The  measure  of  the 
farmer's  success  was  his  ability  to  raise  his  own  food  and 
clothing  rather  than  his  ability  to  organize  his  business 
and  buy  and  sell.  The  changes  that  took  place  in  agri- 
culture from  the  time  David  tended  his  flocks  up  to  the 
last  century,  were  small  in  comparison  with  the  revolu- 
tion that  has  since  occurred.  With  the  introduction  of 
machinery  in  the  factory  and  on  the  farm,  money  has 
become  necessary  for  the  farmer.  The  farm  no  longer 
supplies  his  needs.     He  sells  most  of  his  products  and 


2  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

buys  most  of  his  necessities.  Not  only  must  he  have 
money  to  buy  the  innumerable  necessary  things  for  his 
living  and  equipment,  but  land,  which  was  once  to  be  had 
for  the  asking,  is  now  dear.  All  these  changes  mean 
that  the  farmer  has  become  a  business  man.  He  produces 
and  sells  and  buys.  These  changes  demand  the  applica- 
tion of  business  principles  in  farming.  So  long  as  the 
family  lived  directly  from  the  farm,  there  was  very  little 
need  for  such  principles. 

The  kind  of  business  ability  needed  is  not  so  much  that 
of  the  trader  as  of  the  executive  who  can  organize  a  farm 
into  a  successful  business  enterprise.  The  idle  horse  in 
the  barn  is  a  more  frequent  source  of  loss  than  is  the  bad 
bargain  in  buying  a  horse. 

More  farmers  fail  because  of  poor  farm  management 
than  because  of  poor  production.  This  is  to  be  expected, 
since  the  principles  of  crop  growth  are  much  the  same  as 
they  always  were,  while  the  proper  organization  of  the 
farm  changes  with  every  new  invention.  More  farmers 
fail  because  the  size  of  farm  or  kind  of  farming  does  not 
keep  men,  horses,  and  machinery  properly  employed 
than  fail  because  of  poor  crops. 

The  successful  farmer  must  plan  his  work  ahead  of 
time.  It  is  not  enough  that  he  have  a  plan  for  field  work. 
He  should  always  have  a  plan  of  what  to  do  if  it  storms. 
He  must  foresee  most  things  that  are  about  to  go  wrong 
and  prevent  them  from  going  wrong. 

2.  The  farmer  as  a  mechanic.  —  Mechanical  ability 
has  always  been  desirable  for  a  farmer,  but  in  the  last 
twenty  years  the  great  increase  in  the  number  of  com- 
plicated machines  has  made  this  ability  of  much  more 
importance  than  formerly.  Grain  and  corn  binders, 
manure  spreaders,  potato  diggers,  gasoline  engines,  and 


SHALL   I  BE  A    FARMER?  3 

all  the  other  new  and  expensive  machines  call  for  mechan- 
ical ability  if  they  are  to  be  used  efficiently.  There  is 
something  to  farming  besides  taking  a  pleasure  drive 
with  a  team  of  fine  horses  on  one  of  these  machines.  A 
little  carelessness  or  inexperience  may  cause  a  loss  of  more 
than  a  month's  wages.  Occasionally  a  farmer  can  de- 
pend on  hired  men  for  this  mechanical  ability,  but  usually 
he  must  not  only  be  the  mechanic,  but  must  instruct  the 
men  and  guard  against  their  carelessness.  There  are 
still  some  kinds  of  farming  in  which  machinery  is  little 
used,  but  more  and  more  the  farmer-mechanic  with  his 
machine  is  replacing  the  hand  laborer. 

3.  The  farmer  as  a  naturalist.  —  The  farmer  has 
ever  been  a  naturalist.  He  used  to  conspire  with  the 
moon  and  the  almanac  to  coax  nature  to  yield  a  bounti- 
ful harvest.  But  he  has  always  had  many  good  ideas 
on  plant  and  animal  growth,  gained  from  his  intimate 
companionship  with  his  crops  and  stock.  The  farmer 
must  always  be  a  naturalist.  The  great  fund  of  knowl- 
edge that  has  been  acquired  by  the  many  generations  of 
farmers  is  now  being  organized  on  a  scientific  basiS;  and 
some  new  knowledge  is  being  added  by  investigation,  so 
that  we  are  coming  to  have  a  large  body  of  knowledge 
about  crop  growth  and  animal  feeding  and  breeding. 
The  farmer  is  not  now  entirely  dependent  upon  the 
experience  of  his  community.  He  may  learn  from  the 
experiences  in  other  states  and  countries  and  from  scien- 
tific investigation.  If  a  farmer  is  to  compete  with  his 
neighbors,  he  must  study  the  science  of  plant  and  animal 
production.  If  he  takes  a  keen  delight  in  watching  crops 
and  animals  thrive,  it  will  add  much  to  his  pleasure,  and, 
if  tempered  with  good  judgment,  will  go  far  toward 
bringing  success. 


4  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

4.  The  farmer  as  a  skilled  laborer.  —  A  generation 
ago,  the  farmer  was  primarily  a  laborer.  His  machinery 
consisted  of  a  wagon,  walking  plow,  harrow,  cultivator, 
hand  corn  planter,  grain  cradle,  scythe,  hand  rake,  flail, 
ax,  hoe,  pitchfork,  and  a  few  other  tools.  All  of  these 
were  muscle  testers.  If  he  worked  hard  all  day,  he  was 
ready  for  a  night's  rest.  He  did  not  have  to  read  a 
bulletin  on  scientific  agriculture  to  put  him  to  sleep. 
Physical  strength  and  physical  skill  were  among  the 
greatest  assets,  and  were  so  recognized  by  all  farmers. 
If  a  man  had  common  sense,  and  if  he  and  his  wife  were 
strong,  their  success  was  assured,  for  success  was  in 
raising  each  summer  a  little  more  than  enough  food  and 
clothing  for  the  winter. 

Many  persons,  who  are  not  closely  in  touch  with  farm- 
ing, believe  that  the  introduction  of  machinery  has  done 
away  with  the  necessity  for  strength  and  skill  in  manual 
operations,  but  these  will  always  be  very  important  con- 
siderations for  the  farmer.  Few  people  realize  how  hard  it 
is  to  acquire  this  manual  skill.  The  writer  has  had  an 
opportunity  to  see  the  efforts  of  many  city  persons,  and 
has  been  surprised  to  see  how  difficult  it  is  to  acquire 
manual  dexterity.  The  children  on  the  farm  learn  by  years 
of  practice.  It  takes  thousands  of  efforts  for  the  boy  to 
learn  to  throw  a  baseball  straight.  Apparently  it  is  just  as 
difficult  to  learn  to  pitch  hay.  If  this  skill  is  acquired  by 
ten  years  of  practice  in  childhood,  little  is  thought  about  it, 
but  if  it  is  to  be  acquired  by  a  mature  man,  it  is  a  serious 
undertaking.  Milking,  using  a  saw,  using  an  ax,  and  a 
thousand  other  manual  operations  are  hard  for  a  grown 
person  to  learn ;  but  if  one  has  been  used  to  manual  labor 
so  that  he  has  trained  muscles,  new  operations  are  not  so 
difficult.     Grown  persons  who  have  never  learned  to  do 


SHALL  I  BE  A    FARMER?  5 

'  manual  work  of  any  kind  rarely  become  successful  farmers. 
The  time  to  train  the  muscles  is  when  they  are  young. 
The  prospective  farmer  who  is  skillful  with  his  hands 
and  likes  to  do  manual  labor  has  two  of  the  very 
desirable  traits  for  a  farmer. 

But  some  persons  ask  if  the  farmer  should  not  spend 
all  his  time  with  business  affairs  and  leave  the  manual 
work  to  hired  help.  There  are  instances  on  large  planta- 
tions where  the  farmer  need  do  no  manual  work,  but  the 
great  majority  of  'farmers  must  always  work  with  their 
hands.  In  the  factory  one  manager  can  supervise  the 
work  of  a  thousand  men  and  can  see  all  these  men  in  a  few 
minutes,  but  with  most  kinds  of  farming  this  would  be 
men  enough  for  half  a  county.  If  this  factory  manager 
can  increase  the  effectiveness  of  each  man  by  a  little,  he 
will  earn  a  good  salary.  With  most  kinds  of  farming  the 
farmer  can  use  but  one  to  five  men.  To  have  one  idle 
manager  for  so  few  workers  would  make  the  expense  of 
supervision  ruinously  large.  The  simple  fact  that  the 
workers  must  always  be  scattered  makes  it  necessary 
that  the  farmer  be  a  worker  as  well  as  a  manager. 

The  man  who  works  with  his  men  and  who  treats  his 
men  as  equals  usually  gets  them  to  do  much  more  work  and 
at  the  same  time  keeps  them  better  contented.  Where 
cheap  labor  is  used,  this  is  not  always  desirable,  but  it  is 
the  best  way  when  the  hired-man  is  the  farmer's  equal,  as  is 
the  case  in  most  parts  of  the  United  States,  where  the  hired- 
man  is  a  neighbor's  son.  We  have  learned  how  to  plow 
with  a  team  of  three  to  six  horses.  We  no  longer  have  one 
man  to  hold  the  plow  and  one  to  drive,  but  we  have  not 
yet  outgrown,  nor  are  we  likely  ever  to  outgrow,  the 
thought  of  Benjamin  Franklin  :  — 


0  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

"He  that  by  the  plow  would  thrive 
Himself  must  either  hold  or  drive." 

5.  Experience  necessary  for  success.  —  A  successful 
engineer  would  not  expect  to  buy  a  bank  and  become  a 
successful  banker  without  some  experience  in  the  business, 
yet  many  men  feel  that  since  they  have  made  a  success 


Fig.  1.  —  One  of  the  better  farm  homes  in  the  newer  part  of  Texas. 

in  the  city  they  can  start  farming  without  any  experience 
and  expect  to  make  a  profit  at  once.  There  is  probably 
no  occupation  in  which  experience  is  more  necessary  and 
in  which  so  much  time  is  required  to  obtain  the  experience. 
City  industries  are  very  specialized.  Farming  calls  for 
experience  with  weather,  diseases,  insects,  plant  feeding, 
animal  feeding,  breeding,  machinery,  business  affairs,  and 
a  hundred  other  things  that  it  takes  time  to  learn.  The 
only  safe  way  for  an  inexperienced  man  to  begin  farming  is 
by  working  for  a  good  farmer.     If  one  begins  for  himself, 


SHALL  I  BE  A   FARMER  f  7 

he  should  put  his  theories  in  cold  storage  and  follow  the 
practice  of  the  most  successful  neighbors  as  closely  as 
possible  for  the  first  few  years.  Even  then  he  will  make 
mistakes  enough.  The  worst  mistake  of  all  is  to  assume 
that  the  farmers  are  all  ignorant  and  unbusinesslike. 
They  are  the  fathers  and  brothers  of  our  mighty  "  captains 
of  industry  "  and  are  usually  as  efficient  for  their  condi- 
tions as  the  successful  city  man  is  for  his. 

Inexperience  is  so  serious  a  handicap  that  farmers  are 
very  loath  to  hire  any  one  from  the  city  except  for  very 


Fig.  2.  —  One  of  the  better  farm  homes  in  Minnesota. 

simple  kinds  of  work,  as  picking  fruit,  picking  up  potatoes, 
weeding,  and  similar  tasks. 

If  one  desires  to  have  a  chance  to  learn  all  phases  of 
farming,  he  should  not  expect  much  pay  until  he  be- 
comes of  use.  If  an  inexperienced  person  is  allowed 
to  use  machinery  and  take  care  of  stock  and  crops, 
the  farmer  is  almost  certain  to  have  serious  losses,  un- 
less he  has  another  person  to  watch  the  beginner  almost 
constantly. 

6.  The  farm  a  home  enterprise.  —  The  home  and  the 
business  are  so  closely  united  on  the  farm  that  success  de- 
pends to  a  large  extent  on  the  home. 

Much  of  the  farm  work  is  done  in  the  house.  The 
hired-man  may  be  boarded,  the  milk  pails  are  washed,  the 


8  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

eggs  are  cleaned  for  market,  and  butter  is  sometimes  made. 
In  many  cases  the  women  help  with  the  milking,  take 
care  of  hens,  work  in  the  garden,  and  do  other  kinds  of 
outside  work.  A  limited  amount  of  such  outdoor  work  is 
a  good  thing  for  health  and  happiness.  When  the  farmer 
is  away,  his  wife  usually  takes  the  responsibility  of  seeing 
that  things  go  well. 

For  these  reasons,  a  single  man  or  woman  finds  it 
difficult  to  manage  a  farm  successfully.  One  may  suc- 
ceed in  a  city  whether  he  has  a  family  or  not,  but  on  a  farm 
the  chances  are  much  better  for  married  persons. 

The  young  farmer  usually  hires  out  until  he  marries. 
This  usually  marks  his  start  as  a  tenant,  or,  if  he  has  the 
capital,  his  start  as  an  owner.  For  success  in  farming, 
health,  strength,  and  ability  for  the  wife  are  almost  as 
important  as  for  the  farmer. 

On  947  farms  in  New  York  it  was  found  that  only  4  per 
cent  of  the  families  consisted  of  one  person.^  Many  of 
these  were  widows  and  widowers  who  had  not  yet  disposed 
of  the  farm.  Very  few  men  continue  in  farming  unless 
they  have  wives  or  daughters,  and  very  few  women 
continue  in  the  occupation  unless  they  have  husbands 
or  sons.     Farming  is  distinctly  dependent  on  the  home. 

There  are  some  cases  where  the  farm  is  independent  of 
the  house.  The  hired  men  board  themselves  or  live  in 
boarding  houses.  If  cows  are  kept,  the  dairy  work  is 
done  in  a  dairy  house.  Some  of  these  are  successful  farms, 
but  most  of  them  are  owned  by  men  who  have  the  money 
and  are  willing  to  run  a  farm  at  a  loss.  For  every  such 
enterprise,  there  are  probably  a  hundred  where  the  farmer 
and  his  family  are  partners  in  the  farm  business. 

One  great  advantage  of  farming  as  compared  with  city 
1  New  York,  Cornell  Bulletin  295,  p.  555. 


0  SHALL   1  BE  A    FARMER  f  9 

life  is  that  the  farm  furnishes  work  for  children.  Under 
modern  conditions  there  are  thousands  of  children  who  are 
more  in  need  of  a  chance  to  work  than  of  laws  to  prevent 
child  labor.  It  is  so  hard  to  provide  desirable  work  for 
children  in  cities  that  laws  are  passed  to  prevent  them 
from  working.     This  is  not  because  work  is  bad  for  a  child, 


Fig.  3.  — A  typical  farm  home  in  western  New  York. 

but  because  of  the  kind  of  work,  the  surroundings,  or  the 
danger  of  overwork. 

Every  child  should  have  some  regular  work  to  do  from 
the  time  he  is  five  years  old,  when  he  begins  to  carry  in  a 
few  sticks  of  wood  for  his  mother.  The  city  home  cannot 
readily  provide  work  for  boys,  hence  they  are  often  kept  in 
idleness  when  not  in  school.  The  boy  sees  little  of  his 
father;  all  his  companions  are  boys.  On  the  farm  the 
boy  has  companionship  with  his  father  as  well  as  with 
boys.  He  helps  his  father  work  and  feels  that  he  is  taking 
a  man's  part  in  the  world.  As  he  grows  older,  he  learns 
how  to  do  many  things.  He  has  responsibility  for  the 
care  of  live-stock.  He  learns  that  he  must  not  neglect 
his  stock,  even  if  he  is  tired  or  desires  to  play.  He  learns 
the  value  of  time.     Every  one  who  is  to  be  of  real  use  in 


10  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

the  world  must  learn  to  work  when  he  would  rather  not. 
No  school  can  ever  offer  such  an  opportunity  as  the  farm 
boy  has.  He  has  manual  training,  responsibility,  and 
companionship  with  his  father  as  well  as  school  and  play. 
No  wonder  that  such  a  boy  is  better  prepared  for  the 
world's  work  than  is  the  boy  who  never  did  anything  but 
go  to  school  and  play  on  the  streets. 

At  the  same  time  that  the  farm  boy  is  being  trained  by 
work,  he  is  contributing  to  the  success  of  the  farm.     Occa- 


FiG.  4.  —  One  of  the  better  farm  homes  in  the  East. 

sionally  a  boy  has  to  work  too  hard,  but  boys  are  not 
often  injured  by  farm  work. 

This  opportunity  for  the  children  is  one  of  the  considera- 
tions that  leads  many  persons  to  be  farmers,  even  though 
they  may  not  expect  so  great  financial  success  as  may  be 
had  elsewhere. 

The  farm  will  always  be  somewhat  isolated.  The 
ability  to  entertain  one's  self  is,  therefore,  a  desirable  trait 
for  a  farmer.  Some  persons  secure  entertainment  by  read- 
ing, by  thinking,  by  watching  crops  grow,  by  seeing  cows 
at  pasture.  Some  families  furnish  their  own  music  and 
are  best  pleased  by  the  old-time  songs  without  any  vocal 


SHALL   I  BE  A   FARMER? 


11 


gymnastics.  Other  persons  are  never  happy  when  alone. 
They  need  moving  pictures,  theaters,  a  new  song  every 
day,  and  crowds  of  people  in  order  to  be  happy.  The 
farmer  sees  fewer  people,  but  gets  acquainted  with  his 
own  family.  The  family  that  can  go  a  long  way  toward 
self-entertainment  is  in  this  respect  best  fitted  for  farm  life. 
7.  The  farm  is  not  the  place  for  the  inefficient.  —  To 
manage  a  farm  successfully  requires  business  ability  and 


Fig.  5.  —  A  nogro  eabin  with  two  k 


)ne  of  the  better  class. 


skill  in  farm  operations.  Certainly  this  is  not  an  occupa- 
tion for  inefficient  persons.  Nor  can  the  farmer  use 
unskilled  labor  to  good  advantage. 

In  1890  there  w^ere  13.1  per  cent  of  the  farm  laborers 
foreign  born ;  in  1900  only  8.5  per  cent  were  foreign  born.^ 
Many  persons  have  wondered  why  the  immigrants  are  not 
hiring  out  to  farmers  as  much  as  they  once  did.  One 
reason  is  that  they  are  of  less  use  than  formerly.  There 
was  a  iiime  when  the  farm  laborer  from  Europe  made  a 
good  farm-hand  as  soon  as  he  arrived,  because  so  much 
of  the  work  was  done  with  hand  tools  which  he  had  learned 

*  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Yearbook,  1910.  p.  191. 


12  FAIiM  MANAGEMENT 

to  use  in  the  Old  Country.  The  farmer  from  northern 
Europe  is  still  useful  on  a  farm ;  he  knows  how  to  care  for 
live-stock,  but  little  about  machinery.  Few  farmers  from 
southern  Europe  know  much  al^out  either.  The  man  who 
knows  nothing  but  how  to  use  a  hoe,  spade,  and  scythe 
is  not  of  much  use  now.  Of  course  he  can  learn  how  to 
use  horses  and  machinery,  but  in  the  meantime  he  may 
do  more  harm  in  a  few  minutes  than  he  can  pay  for  in  a 
month.  Naturally  he  drifts  into  work  where  he  is  of  im- 
mediate use. 

There  are  some  kinds  of  farming  where  such  labor  is 
valuable.  Around  some  cities  truck  growing  is  passing 
into  the  hands  of  Italians.  Nearly  everywhere  Italians  or 
other  cheap  laborers  are  hired  for  growing  vegetable  crops. 
The  same  is  true  of  sugar-beet  growing.  Farmers  near 
cities  often  ship  out  such  labor  for  temporary  use  in  pick- 
ing fruit,  picking  up  potatoes,  for  ditching,  and  for  other 
operations  where  unskilled  labor  can  be  used.  Some 
cheap  labor  is  used  in  dairying,  but  the  demand  for  clean 
milk  makes  it  very  hard  to  use  ignorant  labor.  No 
one  can  produce  clean  milk  who  does  not  have  a  clean  body 
and  a  clean  mind.  Cotton  picking  is  the  most  extensive 
farm  operation  using  unskilled  labor. 

Farm  work  is  individual  work.  Each  worker  has  to  take 
responsibility.  It  is  not  often  possible  to  give  such  super- 
vision as  can  be  had  in  a  factory,  because  the  number  of 
workers  that  would  be  employed  under  one  roof  in  a  factory 
may  be  scattered  over  half  a  county.  Each  worker  must 
be  a  foreman  of  his  own  work,  and  usually  the  owner  must 
work,  because  he  cannot  supervise  enough  workers  to 
justify  him  in  being  idle.  The  man  who  is  afraid  that  he 
will  work  overtime  is  of  no  use  on  the  farm.  A  storm  may 
come  up,  stock  may  require  unusual  attention,  or  the 


SHALL    I  BE  A    FARMER?  13 

owner  may  he  called  away.  The  farm-hand,  as  well  as 
the  owner,  must  be  a  man  who  will  finish  his  job. 

Well-m(>aning  persons  have  tried  all  kinds  of  philan- 
thropic schemes  for  putting  the  submerged  population 
from  the  cities  on  farms.  Such  attempts  always  have 
failed  and  always  will  fail,  except  in  the  few  instances 
where  the  submerged  man  has  real  ability.  The  in- 
efficient person  is  much  better  off  in  a  city,  where  he  can 
sweep  streets,  dig  ditches,  or  work  in  a  factory.  Under 
constant  supervision,  such  as  can  then  be  given,  the  most 
will  be  gotten  out  of  his  feeble  talent.  He  will  there 
contribute  most  to  the  world  and  will  receive  a  better 
reward  than  he  can  obtain  on  a  farm.  There  is  now  a 
tendency  for  the  extremes  to  move  to  cities,  the  ineffi- 
cient and  weak-willed  and  the  strong  executive  to  manage 
them. 

Usually  the  attempt  to  place  inefficient  persons  on  farms 
is  further  doomed  to  failure  by  the  kind  of  land  chosen. 
In  nearly  all  cases  cheap  or  abandoned  land  is  chosen  — 
land  on  which  the  most  intelligent  farmers  have  failed 
to  make  a  good  living.  If  such  persons  are  to  be  placed 
on  farms,  they  should  have  the  best  land.  They  have 
handicaps  enough  without  adding  the  one  almost  insur- 
mountable one  of  poor  land. 

This  does  not  mean  that  reform  schools  and  similar 
institutions  should  not  be  on  farms.  This  is  the  best 
possible  place  for  such  institutions.  A  discussion  of  such 
farms  is  given  in  Chapter  20. 

8.  Summary  of  personal  traits  of  successful  farmers. 
—  From  a  study  of  the  most  successful  farms,  it  is  found 
that  the  preceding  qualifications  are  desirable.  Occa- 
sionally a  man  makes  a  fair  success  when  he  has  no  par- 
ticular qualifications  except  muscle,  but  success  under  this 


14  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

condition  is  much  more  difficult  than  formerly.  Occa- 
sionally a  good  executive  makes  a  fair  success  when  he 
does  no  manual  work,  but  higher  profits  are  usually  made 
by  those  who  combine  executive  ability  with  labor. 
Some  very  successful  men  have  very  little  mechanical 
ability,  while  a  good  mechanic  may  fail.  Sometimes  the 
mechanical  genius  spends  so  much  time  puttering  with 
his  tools  that  he  does  not  get  time  to  use  them  in  raising 
crops.  Good  common  sense,  which  is  another  definition 
for  business  ability,  is  the  most  important  trait,  but  the 
highest  profits  are  made  by  those  who  combine  this  ability 
with  experience,  scientific  knowledge  of  plant  and  animal 
production,  manual  and  mechanical  skill,  and  hard  work. 

PROFITS  TO  BE  EXPECTED  IN  FARMING 

9.  Comparison  of  farming  with  other  occupations.  — 
In  order  to  compare  farming  Avith  other  occupations,  we 
must  consider  the  capital  invested,  the  safety  of  the 
capital,  the  average  income,  the  average  number  of  hours 
of  labor,  and  the  cost  and  standard  of  living. 

Such  a  comparison  is  very  hard  to  make.  The  farmer 
goes  without  many  things  that  the  city  man  enjoys,  but 
has  many  things  that  are  luxuries  for  the  city.  In  each 
case  the  value  of  the  things  to  be  had  cheaply  is  under- 
estimated, while  the  value  of  the  things  denied  is  over- 
estimated. Each  one  is  impressed  with  the  greater  pleas- 
ures that  the  other  has.  We  find  the  aim  of  many  farmers 
to  be  to  make  enough  money  to  be  able  to  retire  to  town, 
while  the  city  dweller  hopes  to  save  enough  money  so  that 
he  may  be  able  to  retire  to  a  farm.  In  each  case  the 
pleasures  left  behind  are  better  appreciated  when  they  are 
out  of  reach. 


SHALL   I  BE  A    FARMER  f  16 

The  hours  of  hibor  on  a  farm  are  usually  longer  than  in 
the  city,  but  when  allowance  is  made  for  the  trip  to  and 
from  work,  there  is  not  much  difference.  The  successful 
farm  owner  works  long  hours,  but  so  does  the  successful 
business  or  professional  man  in  a  city. 

One  advantage  of  farming  as  of  any  other  independent 
business  is  that  one  does  not  face  a  "  dead  line."  If  one 
who  works  on  a  salary  loses  his  position  when  he  is  past 
middle  life,  he  is  likely  to  find  it  hard  to  get  another, 
because  young  men  are  wanted. 

10.  Ways  of  measuring  profits.  —  If  all  business 
expenses  are  subtracted  from  the  farm  receipts,  we  ob- 
tain the  income  that  has  been  produced  by  the  farmer  and 
his  money.  If  from  this  we  subtract  the  value  of  his 
work,  we  can  determine  the  per  cent  made  on  the  invest- 
ment. If 'instead  we  subtract  the  interest  that  his  money 
would  have  earned  if  placed  at  interest,  we  will  have  left 
the  pay  that  the  farmer  received  for  his  year's  work  or  his 
labor  income. 

If  the  capital  is  very  large,  the  rate  of  interest  made  on 
the  capital  is  the  more  important  figure,  but  with  the 
amount  of  capital  that  is  usual  in  farming,  the  labor  income 
is  much  more  significant.  Furthermore,  the  interest  rate  is 
easily  determined,  while  it  is  difficult  to  estimate  the  value 
of  the  farmer's  labor  and  supervision.  If  a  farmer  mak(?s  a 
labor  income  of  S300,  it  means  that  his  farm  has  paid 
interest  on  the  investment  at  the  prevailing  rate  in  the 
region,  has  paid  all  business  expenses,  and  has  left  $300 
to  pay  for  the  farmer's  management  and  labor.^     If  a 

'  In  calculating  labor  income,  the  value  of  board  of  hired  labor  is 
counted  as  an  expense,  but  no  personal  or  living  expenses  are  counted. 
If  the  farmer's  sons  or  other  members  of  the  family  do  farm  work  without, 
pay,  their  labor  is  counted  as  an  expense  and  rated  at  what  they  would 


16  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

farmer's  labor  income  does  not  equal  hired-man's  wages, 
he  would  be  as  well  off  if  he  sold  his  farm,  placed  his  money 
at  interest,  and  hired  out. 

11.  Comparison  of  labor  income  with  city  salaries.  —  The 
labor  income  made  on  a  farm  is  one  of  the  best  measures 
of  its  efficiency.  Labor  incomes  show  which  farmers  are 
making  most  for  their  year's  work.  In  addition  to  his  labor 
income  the  farmer  receives  the  use  of  a  house  and  some 
products  for  home  use.  This  gives  a  measure  of  profit  that 
is  very  good  for  comparing  farms  and  is  comparable  with 
hired-man's  wages.  It  is  not  intended  for  comparison  with 
the  city,  but  may  be  suggestive  for  such  comparisons.  In 
order  to  compare  with  city  salaries,  we  must  add  to  the 
labor  income  the  amount  that  the  house  rent  and  farm 
produce  used  by  the  family  are  worth. 

12.  Labor  incomes  made  by  farmers.  —  In  Tompkins 
County,  New  York,  in  1907  the  average  labor  income  made 
by  615  farmers  was  $423.  About  one-third  of  the  farmers 
made  less  than  $200,  about  one-third  made  $200  to  $400, 
and  one-third  made  over  $400.  Or,  one-third  failed  to  make 
hired-man's  wages,  one-thircF  made  wages,  and  one-third 
made  more  than  wages. ^ 

The  house  rent  and  farm  products  used  in  the  house  in 
this  region  probably  average  about  $300,  so  that  these 
farmers  average  about  as  much  as  a  $700  salary  in  the  city. 

have  received  had  they  worked  for  their  neighbors.  An  increase  in  stock, 
feed,  or  other  inventory  items  is  counted  as  a  receipt ;  a  decrease  is  counted 
as  an  expense.  In  succeeding  pages  Livingston  and  Tompkins  coun- 
ties are  referred  to.  In  these  counties  interest  was  counted  at  5  per  cent, 
but  taxes  were  not  included  with  expenses.  These  averaged  about  5  per 
cent,  so  that  the  labor  incomes  in  these  counties  are  pay  for  labor  above 
4|  per  cent  interest  on  capital.  Taxes  should  be  included  and  were  in- 
cluded in  Jefferson  County  because  money  can  be  loaned  on  farm  mort- 
gages for  5  per  cent  net. 

I  New  York,  Cornell  Bulletin  295,  pp.  396-397. 


SHALL    I  BE  A    FARMER?  17 

Thoy  can  save  more  than  they  could  on  this  amount  in  a 
city,  because  they  go  without  many  things  that  they  would 
be  tempted  to  buy  in  a  city. 

Some  of  the  farmers  made  much  less  than  hired-men 
receive ;  some  received  nothing  for  their  year's  work  and 
lost  money  besides.  Others  made  very  good  profits. 
Nine  per  cent  of  the  farmers  in  this  county  made  labor 
incomes  of  over  SIOOO,  and  one  per  cent  made  over  S2000. 
This  is  a  general  farming  region  that  is  about  as  prosperous 
as  most  of  the  North  Atlantic  States. 

In  northern  Livingston  County  the  average  labor  in- 
come on  578  farms  in  1909  was  S666.  This  is  one  of  the 
most  prosperous  regions  in  the  United  States.  This  labor 
income  added  to  the  value  of  house  rent  and  farm  prod- 
ucts would  probably  be  equal  to  about  -SIOOO  in  a  city. 
Again,  some  of  the  farmers  worked  for  nothing,  while  others 
did  well.  One  hundred  fifty-three,  or  26  per  cent,  of  the 
fanners  made  over  .*?1000,  and  34,  or  6  per  cent,  made  over 
$2000.     The  highest  was  $7780. 

Jefferson  County,  New  York,  is  a  dairy  region.  Very 
little  is  sold  except  milk  and  hay.  The  average  labor 
income  of  670  farms  in  this  county  in  1910  was  $609. 
One  hundred  forty-five,  or  22  per  cent,  of  the  farmers  made 
over  $1000,  and  17,  or  3  per  cent,  made  over  $2000.  The 
highest  was  $4222. 

Labor  incomes  on  178  farms  scattered  about  New  York 
State,  many  of  them  noted  farms,  showed  14  making  labor 
incomes  of  over  $2500. 

The  results  on  2932  farms  in  New  York  have  shown  but 
10  making  labor  incomes  of  over  $4000.  The  highest  was 
$9490. 

The  average  labor  income  of  266  farmers  in  southern 
New  Hampshire  in  1909  was  $337.     Half  of  the  farmers 


18 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


made  less  than  $200.  Eleven  per  cent  of  them  made  labor 
incomes  over  SIOOO ;  none  made  as  high  as  $2000. ^  One  of 
the  chief  aims  of  this  book  is  to  disclose  the  principles  of 
farming  that  result  in  the  larger  profits. 

Similar  studies  in  the  Central  West,  on  the  Pacific 
coast,  and  in  other  parts  of  the  United  States  indicate  that 
in  the  best  regions  the  farmers'  labor  incomes  rarely 
average  over  $500.  It  is  not  probable  that  the  average 
for  the  United  States  is  as  much  as  $300,  or  about  one 
dollar  per  day  for  the  farmer's  labor.^  Besides  this,  the 
farmer  makes  interest  on  his  capital  and  has  a  house  and 
some  farm  products. 

13.  Profit  on  real  estate.  —  The  figures  given  above 
do  not  include  any  profit  due  to  increase  in  the  value  of 

real  estate.  This  may 
be  a  source  of  loss  or 
may  bring  more  profit 
than  the  farm  busi- 
ness. Many  farmers 
in  parts  of  the  United 
States,  particularly  in 
the  Central  West, 
have  made  most  of 
their  money  on  the 
rise  in  land  values. 
Many  a  farmer  who 
never  made  more  than 
a  living  while  on  the  farm  has  retired  on  the  increased 
value  of  his  land. 

Real  estate  will  probably  always  be  a  part  of  the  farm 
business.     In  buying  a  farm  the  probability  of  a  rise  in 

•  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bureau  of  Plant  Induistry,  Circular  75,  p.  8. 

*  The  Farmer's  Income,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry, 
Circular  132. 


Fig.  6.  — A  pioneer's  barn. 


SHALL    I    BE    A     FARMER? 


19 


value  of  land  is  one  of  the  very  important  considerations. 
But  the  gain  from  this  source  will  gradually  decrease  as  the 
country  grows  older.  There  are  still  parts  of  the  country 
where  good  land  is  for  sale  for  much  less  than  it  is 
really  worth.  Doubtless  many  farms  will  double  in  value 
in  the  next  twenty  years.  But  we  will  probably  not  see 
such  a  wonderful  land  boom  of  a  large  area  as  occurred 
in  the  Central  West  from  1897  to  1912.  It  does  not  now 
appear  as  if  this  land 
would  go  much  higher 
until  other  parts  of  the 
countr}^  have  had  their 
prices  adjusted. 

i\Iany  of  the  for- 
tunes that  are  attrib- 
uted to  farming  are 
due  to  buying  land, 
when  it  was  cheap  and 
holding  it  until  it  be- 
came valuable.  We 
should  distinguish 

clearly  between  profits  from  producing  crops  and  animals, 
that  can  probably  be  repeated,  and  profits  from  real  es- 
tate that  are  not  so  likely  to  occur  again. 

14.  Safety  of  the  investment.  —  While  farming  does 
not  offer  large  profits,  yet  it  offers  comparative  safety 
for  the  capital  invested.  The  very  fact  that  credit  is 
much  easier  to  secure  on  city  enterprises  of  equal  size 
makes  the  chance  of  loss  of  capital  greater.  Farm  land  is 
a  comparatively  safe  inv(>stment.  A  farmer  finds  it 
difficult  to  borrow  enougli  money  to  make  the  capital 
unsafe.  This  does  not  apply  to  renters.  All  their  capital 
is  investetl  in  stock,  eciuipment,  and  costs  for  the  growing 
crops.     It  is  possible  to  buy  machinery  and  horses  on  time 


Fig.  7.  —  A  pioneer's  sod  house.  Part  of 
the  so-called  "  unearned  increment "  in 
land  values  was  earned  while  living  in 
such  houses. 


20  FARM   MANAGEMENT 

SO  that  a  tenant  may  be  too  much  in  debt  to  be  able  to 
weather  hard  times  or  poor  crops.  Stock  may  die,  crops 
may  fail,  or  prices  may  be  low.  If  a  sale  is  necessary,  the 
loss  is  very  heavy.  Second-hand  machinery  does  not  sell 
well.  The  conditions  that  cause  the  tenant  to  sell  usually 
affect  the  possible  buyers  so  that  they  are  not  likely  to 
offer  good  prices  for  stock.  The  tenant's  capital  is  not  a 
very  safe  investment  compared  with  city  enterprises. 

15.  Estates  left  by  farmers.  —  Another  way  of  judging 
profits  in  farming  is  by  the  estates  left  by  farmers.  In 
most  parts  of  the  United  States  the  total  savings  of  the 
life's  work,  together  with  what  has  been  inherited,  com- 
monly amount  to  S3000  to  $15,000.  In  most  parts  of  the 
country  the  majority  are  nearer  the  lower  figure.  Estates 
of  farmers  who  have  never  done  anything  but  farm  are 
very  rarely  as  high  as  $25,000,  except  in  the  most  favored 
regions.  In  the  Central  West  during  the  past  15  years 
estates  of  $50,000  or  even  $100,000  have  not  been 
uncommon.  These  are  usually  due  to  increased  land 
values. 

16.  Summary  of  profits  in  farming.  —  When  com- 
paring farming  with  city  work,  the  mistake  is  often  made 
of  comparing  farmers  who  have  $5000  to  $40,000  capi- 
tal with  teamsters  and  day  laborers  in  cities.  Farmers 
cannot  be  compared  with  any  class  in  cities,  because  the 
farm  does  not  sort  men  so  closely  as  does  the  city.  Among 
farmers  there  are  some  who  may  be  compared  with  team- 
sters, but  a  larger  number  are  the  fathers  and  brothers  of 
bankers,  lawyers,  doctors,  engineers,  business  men,  and 
''  captains  of  industry,"  and  have  quite  as  much  ability 
as  these  men.  Neither  should  we  make  the  mistake  of 
comparing  the  city  man  who  rents  his  house  with  the 
farmer  who  owns  both  his  house  and  business.     If  the 


SHALL    I  BE  A    FARMER?  21 

city  tenant  has  only  a  rented  home,  we  must  remember 
that  there  are  farm  tenants  who  have  the  same  conditions. 

The  relative  profits  on  the  farm  and  in  the  city  vary  from 
time  to  time,  as  there  are  cycles  of  over  and  under  produc- 
tion of  farmers.  From  1870  to  1895,  farm  opportunities 
were  very  poor  compared  with  the  city.  This  is  now 
being  followed  by  better  times  for  farmers  and  will  probably 
again  be  followed  by  overproduction  within  a  generation. 
The  cycles  of  good  and  bad  times  on  farms  last  for  about  a 
generation. 

Farming  is  a  conservative  business.  Money  invested  in 
it  is  comparatively  safe,  but  it  is  evident  that  it  does  not 
offer  much  opportunity  to  make  a  fortune.  Neither  is 
there  so  great  danger  of  poverty  as  in  the  city.  The  city 
is  a  place  of  extremes.  The  farm  is  more  moderate  both 
in  its  successes  and  in  its  failures.  It  is  not  often  that  a 
person  engaged  in  farming  can  retire  while  young,  but  it  is 
possible  to  make  a  good  living  by  farming.  With  diligence 
and  good  management,  one  may  hope  to  make  a  com- 
fortable living  on  a  farm,  to  be  able  to  travel  some,  to  be 
aljle  to  send  his  children  to  college,  and  to  have  something 
for  his  old  age.  Beyond  this,  it  is  doubtful  if  much  of  an 
estate  is  for  the  best  welfare  of  his  children. 

COST    OF   LIVING    ON    FARMS 

17.  Cost  of  living  on  farms  and  in  cities.  —  While  the 
usual  pay  that  the  farmer  gets  for  his  time  is  small,  yet 
the  living  expenses  are  also  low.  It  is  usually  said  that 
the  farmer  gets  half  his  living  from  the  farm.  While 
there  are  many  exceptions,  it  is  probal)le  that  this  is  about 
right  on  the  average.  The  food  for  families  in  New  York 
City  in  1907  with  an  income  of  $1000  per  year  cost  on  the 
average  about  $451.     Families  with  $1500  inconu;  spend 


22  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

an  average  of  about  $572  for  food.*  With  larger  incomes 
the  cost  of  food  increases,  but  is  a  smaller  proportion  of 
the  total  expense.  Farmers  nearly  always  underestimate 
the  value  of  products  furnished  by  the  farm,  and  city 
persons  are  just  as  prone  to  overestimate  it. 

A  part  of  the  reduced  cost  of  living  on  farms  is  due  to  a 
reduced  living  as  well  as  a  reduced  cost.  Not  all  farm 
families  live  on  the  fat  of  the  land.  More  frequently 
the  best  is  sold.  The  chief  items  in  the  cost  of  living  in 
city  or  country  are  not  food,  but  the  miscellaneous  items. 
On  many  of  these  the  farmer  saves  because  he  goes  with- 
out. Most  conspicuous  of  these  is  a  bathroom  and  run- 
ning water.  Rumiing  water  and  sewage  disposal  can  be 
had  at  small  cost  in  the  city,  but  on  most  farms  are  very 
expensive  for  installation  and  still  more  expensive  for 
operation.  The  cost  of  higher  education  is  another  very 
expensive  item  for  the  farmer.  Usually  his  children  must  be 
furnished  a  horse  to  drive  to  high  school,  or  must  pay  board 
while  attending.  In  the  city  the  children  can  go  through 
high  school  and  often  through  college  while  living  at  home. 

The  farm-grown  produce  and  the  house  are  usually 
cheaper  on  the  farm.  Less  expensive  clothing  is  needed. 
Horses  for  pleasure  driving  are  cheaper. 

There  are  many  items  in  the  cost  of  living  that  are 
cheaper  in  cities  than  on  farms.  Schools,  hbraries, 
churches,  and  theaters  are  cheaper  because  of  less  cost 
to  get  to  them.  Running  water  is  much  cheaper.  Light 
is  cheaper,  if  the  farmer  is  not  content  with  kerosene  lamps. 
If  the  farm  produces  wood,  it  is  cheaper  than  in  the  city, 
but  if  fuel  is  purchased  in  town,  it  is  cheaper  there  because 
of  less  expense  in  hauling.     All  food  that  is  shipped  from 

1  R.  C.  Chapin,  The  Standard  of  Living  among  Working  Men's  Fami- 
lies in  New  York  City,  p.  70. 


SHALL  I  BE  A    FARMER?  23 

other  regions  is  usually  a  little  cheaper  in  large  cities  than 
in  the  small  town  where  the  farmer  makes  his  purchases. 

One  of  the  chief  reasons  why  living  may  be  cheaper  on 
the  farm  is  because  the  farmer  can  live  his  own  life.  If  he 
has  money  to  spend,  he  can  find  ways  of  disposing  of  it. 
If  he  needs  to  economize,  he  can  do  so.  In  the  city  the 
standard  of  living  is  not  so  flexible.  One  of  the  chief 
reasons  for  the  high  cost  of  living  in  cities  is  the  effort 
to  live  as  other  people  do.  The  custom  of  using  all  the 
salary  as  fast  as  it  comes  is  so  general  that  it  is  hard  to 
resist  the  pressure.  The  farmer  sees  fewer  cases  of  ex- 
pensive living.     He  is  much  freer  to  economize. 

18.  Products  furnished  by  the  farm.  —  Table  1  gives 
the  average  quantity  of  products  furnished  by  the  farm 
on  106  farms  in  northern  Livingston  County,  New  York, 
as  found  by  H.  N.  Kutschbach.  This  is  one  of  the  most 
diversified  farming  sections  in  the  United  States  as  well 
as  one  of  the  most  prosperous.  The  diversity  of  farm 
products  as  well  as  the  prosperity  makes  the  quantity 
used  in  the  house  veiy  large,  probably  at  least  twice  as 
large  as  the  average  for  the  country. 

The  average  number  of  members  of  the  family  living 
at  home  was  4.2.  The  average  number  per  family, 
including  hired  help  boarded,  was  5.  These  families  are 
considerably  larger  than  the  average,  again  indicating 
a  prosperous  region.  The  total  value  of  food  furnished  by 
the  farm  averaged  S249  per  farm.  In  the  same  year  it 
is  probable  that  this  same  food  would  have  cost  $350  in 
nearby  cities  if  bought  in  quantities,  and  it  might  have 
cost  $500  in  small  lots.  It  must  be  remembered,  however, 
that  in  few  farming  sections  is  so  much  furnished  by  the 
farm,  and  that  about  one- fifth  of  this  was  used  for  boarding 
hired  help. 


24 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


On  22  farms  in  Minnesota  in  1907  the  average  value  of 
produce  furnished  by  the  farm  for  use  in  the  house  was 
$199.1 

Table  1.  Average  Quantity  of  Produce  Raised  on  the 
Farm  and  Used  in  the  House,  106  Farms  in  Livingston 
County,  New  York,  in  1909 


Product 


Potatoes  . 

Beans 

Wheat  flour 

Buckwheat  flour 

Apples 

Milk    . 

Butter 

Eggs    . 

Honey 

Wood 

Other  fruit  . 
Garden  crops 
Poultry  .  . 
Other  meat  . 
All  other  prod 
uce  .     .     . 


Average 

Amount  per 

Farm 


50.3  bu. 

3.5.0  qt. 

738.0  lb. 

3.7  lb. 

23.6  bu. 

730.7  qt. 

133.9  lb. 

103.3  doz. 

6.4  lb. 

22.8 

cords  2 


Average 

Average 

Average 
Value 
per  In- 

Amount per 

Value 

Individual 

per  Farm 

dividual 

$  5.63 

10.1  bu. 

.$28.1.5 

7.0  qt. 

2.19 

.44 

147.6  13. 

22.14 

4.43 

.7  1b. 

.13 

.03 

4.7  bu. 

11.81 

2.36 

146.1  qt. 

29.96 

5.99 

26.8  lb. 

38.29 

7.66 

20.7  doz. 

22.72 

4.54 

1.3  lb. 

.85 

.17 

4.6 

40.99 

8.20 

cords  2 

8.92 

1.78 

14.65 

2.93 

15.26 

3.05 

54.06 

10.80 

.40 

.08 

Per 
Cent 

OF 

F'arms 
Using 


1(X) 

80 
63 
7 
90 
96 
87 
99 
16 
83 

82 
90 
95 
93 


*  Eighteen  inch  wood. 

Probably  the  same  materials  could  not  have  been  pur- 
chased in  a  city  for  much  less  than  .$350  to  $400.  Again, 
a  part  of  this  produce  was  used  for  boarding  the  hired-men, 
so  that  it  is  not  all  to  be  counted  as  a  gain  on  the  family 
cost  of  living. 

Table  2  shows  the  quantity  of  some  of  the  farm  prod- 
ucts used  per  farm  on  22  farms  in  Minnesota.  These 
farmers  are  producing  more  butter,  eggs,  and  meat  for  home 

'  Journul  of  Home  Economics,  Vol.  I,  No.  1,  pp.  -34-51. 


SHALL   I  HE  A   FARMER?  25 

use  than  are  the  farmers  in  Livingston  County,  New  York, 
but  are  not  using  so  much  fruit  and  vegetables. 

Table  2.  Quantity  of  Certain  Products  Raised  on  the 
Farm  and  Used  in  the  House,  Average  of  15  Farms  in 
1906  AND  22  Farms  in  1907  in  Minnesota  ^ 

Milk 1221  qt. 

Cream 125  qt. 

Butter 200  lb. 

Pork 365  lb. 

Beef 201  lb. 

Veal 34  lb. 

Mutton 9  lb. 

Poultry 79  lb. 

Eggs 195  doz. 

'  Data  furnished  by  the  Minnesota  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 
The  number  of  persons  per  family  was  reduced  to  the  equivalent  in  men 
and  averaged  4.6 ;  that  is,  the  number  of  persons  would  probably  use  as 
much  food  as  4.0  men. 

19.  Cost  of  living  on  farms.  —  Table  3  shows  the  cost 
of  living  on  106  farms  in  Livingston  County.  It  does 
not  include  the  value  of  man  or  horse  labor  used  by  the 
family  or  the  value  of  the  time  of  the  farmer's  family  in 
doing  household  work.  The  total  cost  of  living  per  family 
averages  $915,  or  $183  per  individual.  The  costs  per  indi- 
vidual varied  from  $81  to  $523,  but  86  per  cent  came  be- 
tween $100  and  $300  per  individual. 

The  farm  furnished  62  per  cent  of  the  food  used  and 
half  the  fuel.  Counting  the  value  of  the  use  of  the  house 
at  8  per  cent  of  the  value  of  the  house  (in  addition  to  the 
cost  of  repairs),  we  find  that  the  farm  products  furnish 
45  per  cent  of  the  cost  of  living. 

On  the  22  farms  in  Minnesota  the  average  value  of 
produce  furnished  by  the  farm  was  $199.  The  average 
amount  paid  for  groceries  and  fuel  was  $195;  for  house 
furnishings,  $25. 


26 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


Table  3.  —  Cost  of  Living  on  106  Farms  in  Livingston 
County,  New  York,  in  1909 


Average  per 
Individual 


Furnished  by  the  farm. 

Food 

Fuel 

House  rent  (8  per  cent  of  value)     .     . 

Cash  expenses. 

Food 

Fuel  and  light 

Household  expenses,  furniture,  bed- 
ding, clothing,  dishes 

Repairs  on  house 

Household  help 

Miscellaneous  expenses,  books,  papers, 
postage,  church,  carfare,  telephone, 
amusements,  doctor's  bills.  Grange 
dues,  etc 


'  Miscellaneous  expenses  are  divided  by*4.2,  as  the  hired  help  do  not 
share  in  these.  Household  expenses  are  a  little  too  low  per  individual, 
as  the  hired  help  do  not  share  in  all  these. 


THE    FARM    FROM   THE    STANDPOINT   OF   THE    HIRED-MAN 

20.  Opportunities  as  a  farm-hand.  —  The  farm-hand 
who  receives  $25  per  month  with  board  and  washing  can 
readily  compare  his  wages  with  the  wages  in  a  city  where 
he  would  usually  pay  $15  to  $30  per  month  for  board  and 
room  and  $2  to  $3  for  washing.  In  most  parts  of  the 
country  his  $25  is  as  good  as  $50  per  month  in  a  city. 
If  he  is  inclined  to  save,  he  will  find  it  much  easier  to  save 
on  the  farm,  even  if  he  gets  only  half  the  wages. 

A  married  man  on  a  farm,  who  receives  house  rent  and 
more  or  less  farm  products,  will  usually  find  that  he  needs 
double  the  farm  wages  if  he  is  to  live  equally  well  in  a  town 
or  city. 


SHALL  I  BE  A    FARMER/  27 

There  is  little  chance  on  the  farm  for  an  able  man  to 
advance  in  pay  as  he  can  in  the  city.  Of  course,  a  good 
man  will  receive  more  than  a  poor  one,  but  the  farm  does 
not  offer  the  chance  for  increase  in  wages  that  is  offered  in 
the  city.  The  farm  does  not  need  so  many  grades  of  men. 
The  farmer  himself  is  the  foreman  and  everything  above 
that  grade.  Only  here  and  there  is  there  a  farm  that 
needs  high-priced  men.  The  hired-man  who  proves  his 
worth  will  receive  his  reward  by  being  able  to  rent  a  good 
farm,  after  he  has  saved  some  money. 

The  place  of  hired-man  should  be  looked  upon  as  a 
stepping-stone  to  rental  and  ownership.  For  this  reason 
he  should  consider  the  value  of  the  experience  that  he  is 
going  to  get  as  well  as  the  wages.  Very  many  of  the 
most  successful  farmers  in  every  region  are  following  a 
system  of  farming  that  they  learned  while  working  for  a 
good  farmer. 

Very  few  men  continue  as  farm-hands  for  many  years. 
If  they  are  able  men,  they  change  to  tenant ;  if  they  are 
not  good  men,  they  usually  drift  to  cities,  where  they 
can  be  used  in  gangs.  Most  of  the  farm-hands  in  the 
United  States  are  young  men  who  will  later  be  farmers. 
The  chief  exceptions  are  harvest  and  seasonal  help  shipped 
out  from-cities,  and  the  negro. 

THE  FARM  FROM  THE  STANDPOINT  OF  THE  TENANT 

21.  Opportunities  as  a  tenant.  —  Tenancy  is  a  second 
step  toward  ownership.  Few  persons  expect  to  remain 
tenants  permanently.  Many  tenants  secure  land  on 
such  terms  that  the  rent  is  no  more  than  interest  on  the 
land.  The  best  forms  of  renting  for  the  tenant  are  usually 
those  in  which  the  landlord  does  the  least  supervising.     Not 


28  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

because  his  supervision  is  of  no  value,  but  because  the 
system  of  rental  is  so  adjusted  that  he  gets  paid  for  the 
supervision.  If  the  tenant  has  the  ability,  he  should 
supervise  himself.  If  a  tenant  secures  a  good  farm,  he 
may  hope  to  get  ahead  enough  to  buy  a  farm  and  make 
a  part  payment  before  many  years.     (See  also  Chapter  9.) 

FARM   INVESTMENTS 

22.  Land  as  an  investment.  —  Persons  who  do  not 
desire  to  be  farmers  often  invest  money  in  land.  This  is 
the  very  common  outlet  for  surplus  money  in  the  Middle 
West.  The  rise  in  land  values  h^s  greatly  stimulated  this 
movement.  Under  such  conditions  it  is  possible  to  have 
inflated  prices,  but,  in  general,  land  wisely  purchased  is  a 
conservative  investment.  It  usually  pays  a  moderate 
rate  of  interest.  In  a  new  country  the  rental  system  is 
simple,  and  little  attention  is  given  to  keeping  up  the  land. 
As  the  country  develops,  farm  property  requires  con- 
siderable attention  from  the  landlord  or  his  agent.  Those 
who  wish  investments  that  will  not  call  for  much  attention 
then  prefer  stocks  and  bonds.  The  most  satisfactory  way 
to  handle  farm  property  held  as  an  investment  is  to  rent 
it.  It  is  rarely  so  profitable  to  hire  a  manager  unless  the 
owner  understands  farming  and  lives  on  the  place  or  can 
give  it  constant  attention. 

One  must  never  expect  so  high  returns  when  he  invests 
money  as  when  he  goes  into  business  with  his  money. 
Money  lent  on  farm  mortgages  is  usually  safe,  and  calls 
for  very  little  attention,  hence  the  rate  of  interest  is  mod- 
erate at  the  present  time,  —  about  5  percent  in  the  North 
Atlantic  States,  6  per  cent  in  the  Middle  West,  and  8  per 
cent  in  the  South  and  on  the  Pacific  coast.     These  rates 


SHALL    I  BE  A    FABMER?  29 

are  constantly  changing.  Cash  rent  involves  more  atten- 
tion and  on  the  average  brings  a  little  more  returns  than 
mortgages.  Share  rent,  particularly  if  the  animals  are 
shared,  involves  much  more  attention  on  the  part  of  the 
landlord  and  brings  considerably  higher  returns.  In  each 
step,  the  landlord  is  coming  nearer  to  going  into  business 
with  his  money,  and  so  is  entitled  to  greater  returns.  In 
Tompkins  County,  New  York,  when  money  was  being 
loaned  on  mortgages  at  5  per  cent,  landlords  who  rented 
for  cash  made  an  average  of  5.2  per  cent,  and  those  who 
rented  for  a  share  of  all  products  made  an  average  of  9  per 
cent.^ 

THE    BACK-TO-THE-LAND    MOVEMENT 

23.  The  aims  of  the  movement.  —  Much  of  the  back- 
to-the-land  movement  is  an  attempt  to  send  persons  to 
farms  in  the  hope  that  this  will  result  in  more  produce  and 
so  decrease  the  cost  of  living.  Some  of  it  is  a  desire  of  the 
city  to  get  rid  of  its  paupers.  The  subject  is  much  con- 
fused, because  many  persons  call  a  patch  in  the  suburbs  a 
farm.  Men  of  wealth  have  country  homes  on  which  they 
play  at  farming.  The  alluring  articles  on  the  subject  have 
led  some  persons  of  small  means,  who  do  not  have  the 
capital  or  experience  necessary  for  success  in  farming, 
to  buy  farms  whose  value  they  were  even  less  qualified  to 
judge.  Much  of  this  exploitation  has  been  encouraged 
by  the  mistaken  idea  that  any  "  little  farm  well  tilled  " 
will  support  a  family.  The  real  estate  dealer  does  not 
know  any  better,  or  if  he  does  he  does  not  tell.  He  has 
been  very  willing  to  find  the  attractive  bargains  desired. 
The  farmer  who  owns  the  land  consents  to  part  with  it 
when  he  gets  enough  more  than  it  is  worth  for  farm  pur- 

»  New  York,  Cornell  Bulletin  2!)5,  p.  541. 


30 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


poses.  He  often  has  the  pleasure  of  returning  to  the  city 
one  of  its  gold  bricks  with  compound  interest.  He  can 
then  retire  to  town  to  take  the  house  made  vacant  by  the 
new  farmer. 

There  are  some  fundamental  principles  of  the  adjust- 
ment of  population  between  city  and  country  that  need  to 
be  considered  by  all  persons  interested  in  the  question. 


■  t^,  '  '^%>       1 

v?w-.'"^-<:?>''-^*,'  '•'.■•«■•*  . 

r 

v< 

/» 

1  ' 

'<'--'*  o^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^l 

Fig.  8. — A  comfortable  farm  home  of  a  lawyer  who  went  back  to  the 
farm  in  the  Shenandoah  valley. 

24.    With  better  farming  fewer  farmers  are  needed.  — 

President  Gilmore  of  the  College  of  Hawaii,  who  spent 
some  years  teaching  agriculture  in  China  and  the  Philip- 
pines, estimates  that  70  per  cent  of  the  Chinese  are  farmers. 
Others  place  the  estimate  as  high  as  80  per  cent.  Each 
man  farms  about  2  acres  of  land.  Yet  the  greatest  need 
of  China  is  more  men.  Land  is  idle  because,  with  the 
methods  used,  there  are  not  men  enough  to  farm  it.  Rail- 
roads and  industry  are  held  back  because  of  shortage  of 


SHALL   I  BE  A    FARMER?  31 

men.  The  first  step  in  progress  is  for  each  farmer  to  use 
machinery  and  animal  power  so  that  he  can  work  more 
land.  This  would  allow  a  larger  proportion  of  the  popula- 
tion to  do  other  things. 

In  the  days  of  our  forefathers,  the  entire  family  worked 
on  the  farm.  Little  time  was  spent  in  going  to  school,  in 
reading,  or  in  travel,  yet  the  few  farm  tools  were  so  crude 
and  the  farming  so  poorly  done  that  a  family  raised  little 
more  than  it  consumed.  Work  as  hard  as  they  could, 
the  family  was  often  threatened  with  famine.  Nearly  all 
persons  had  to  be  farmers  to  live.  In  India  and  China  we 
have  much  the  same  condition  to-day.  One  family  raises 
little  more  than  it  uses,  hence  a  very  large  part  of  the  popu- 
lation are  farmers.  So  long  as  this  condition  continues, 
it  is  impossible  for  a  high  state  of  civilization  to  develop. 

When  our  fathers  began  to  use  machinery  and  better 
farming  methods,  it  became  possible  for  one  family  to 
produce  enough  to  feed  two  families.  This  made  it 
possible  for  half  of  the  population  to  do  other  kinds  of 
work.  At  the  same  time,  the  farmer  became  a  purchaser 
of  articles  that  formerly  were  unheard-of  luxuries. 

If  civilization  is  to  progress,  this  movement  must  con- 
tinue. It  allows  men  to  engage  in  research  and  invention, 
to  write  books  and  magazines,  to  manufacture  and  trans- 
port the  things  that  a  higher  civilization  demands.  Best 
of  all,  it  allows  the  youth  of  the  land  more  years  of  school- 
ing. All  progress  in  civilization  depends  on  having  each 
farmer  produce  more  than  his  father  produced. 

Iowa  furnishes  an  excellent  illustration  of  increased 
efficiency  of  farmers.  Farmers  have  learned  to  drive 
three-,  four-,  and  five-horse  teams.  This  has  resulted  in  a 
decrease  in  rural  population.  Rather  than  a  calamity,  this 
decrease  in  population  is  an  evidence  of  a  wonderful  in- 


32  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

crease  in  efficiency  of  farmers.  The  people  of  Iowa  have 
not  died.  The  sturdy  sons,  who  have  learned  how  tc 
use  human  labor  to  such  good  advantage,  have  moved  to 
Texas,  Washington,  Canada,  and  all  the  country  between, 
and  wherever  they  have  gone  they  have  been  efficient. 

With  the  spread  of  the  improved  methods  that  are  used 
by  our  better  farmers,  it  is  probable  that  the  time  may  soon 
come  when  one  farmer  will  raise  enough  to  feed  five  or 
six  families.  When  this  time  comes,  only  15  to  20  per  cent 
of  the  population  will  be  farmers.  These  farmers  will  pur- 
chase many  things  not  yet  invented,  and  all  civilization 
will  have  taken  a  long  step  forward. 

This  means  that  we  shall  have  a  constant  movement  to 
cities,  but  there  will  always  be  a  small  number  going 
from  the  city  to  the  farm  because  they  prefer  farm  life. 
The  balance  of  the  movement  must  always  be  cityward, 
so  long  as  farmers  continue  to  become  more  efficient. 

All  these  fundamental  principles  are  lost  sight  of  by 
the  enthusiast  who  would  have  everybody  (except  him- 
self) go  back  to  the  farm.  If  any  further  evidence  is 
needed  of  the  futility  of  striving  against  an  economic  law 
that  is  as  firmly  estabUshed  as  the  law  of  gravitation,  this 
evidence  is  furnished  by  the  few  persons  who  have  really 
gone  from  city  to  country,  as  a  result  of  all  the  agitation 
and  yards  of  writing  on  the  subject. 

25.  Why  the  farm  boy  went  to  town.  —  The  Civil 
War  removed  so  many  persons  from  production  that 
prices  were  veiy  abnormal.  With  the  war  over,  the 
soldiers  and  others  rushed  to  the  great  fertile  prairies  of 
the  Central  West,  hoping  to  raise  crops  and  secure  these 
big  prices.  Just  as  they  became  well  established,  new 
machinery  began  to  be  introduced :  binders,  drills, 
gang  plows,  check  row  corn  planters,  and  big  threshing 


SHALL   I  BE  A    FARMER?  33 

machines,  making  one  of  the  most  important  and  most 
dramatic  revolutions  of  history.  These  machines  so 
increased  the  productive  capacity  of  the  farmer  as  to  result 
in  great  overproduction  of  crops.  The  proportion  of  the 
population  required  for  farming  was  suddenly  decreased 
so  enormously  that  a  rush  to  the  cities  was  necessary. 
But  men  could  not  go  fast  enough  to  keep  the  balance 
between  city  and  country.  There  were  too  many  farmers  ! 
The  overproduction  was  so  serious  that  from  1875  to  1897 
we  had  the  most  serious  agricultural  depression  that  the 
country  has  ever  experienced.  As  late  as  1896,  the 
average  price  of  corn  on  farms  in  Nebraska  was  13  cents 
per  bushel  of  shelled  corn.^  The  corn  from  my  father's 
farm,  as  good  corn  as  ever  grew,  sold  for  8  cents.  In  1897, 
the  average  price  for  this  state  was  17  cents.^  The 
Eastern  farmers  were  even  worse  off.  They  had  pur- 
chased their  farms  at  inflated  prices,  and  not  only  worked 
for  almost  nothing,  but  lost  capital  besides. 

Ail  this  time,  great  fortunes  were  being  piled  up  in  the 
cities.  The  farm  boys  moved  to  town  by  the  hundreds 
of  thousands,  ])ecause  the  city  offered  good  wages  and 
farming  did  not  pay.  This  movement  was  the  best  possible 
thing  for  the  country,  and,  in  the  vast  majority  of  cases, 
was  best  for  the  individual. 

26.  The  remedy  is  automatic.  —  When  the  balance 
of  society  is  thrown  so  far  out  of  adjustment,  the  tendency 
is  to  swing  too  far  to  the  other  extreme.  The  rush  to  the 
city  continued  a  little  too  long,  but  no  back-to-the-farm 
movement  is  necessary,  or  even  desirable.  A  large  pro- 
pr)rtion  of  the  farm  boys  are  now  remaining  on  the  farm, 
becau.se  it  pays.  It  requiretl  only  a  few  years  of  good 
prices  to  check  the  rush  to  cities.     A  good  index  to  the 

'  U.  S.  Dopt,  Agr.,  1897,  Yearbook,  p.  723. 


34  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

situation  is  given  by  the  agricultural  college  students.  A 
few  years  ago,  practically  none  of  these  returned  to  farms 
for  the  very  good  reason  that  they  could  not  afford  to 
do  so.  To-day  the  great  majority  of  these  students  are 
planning  to  farm  at  once,  or  as  soon  as  they  can  get  the 
necessary  capital. 

There  may  be  some  danger  that  we  shall  keep  too  many 
boys  on  farms  and  again  have  an  overproduction  of 
farm  produce  ten  or  twenty  years  from  now,  when  all 
these  boys  become  farmers.  Both  city  and  country  will 
be  best  off  if  the  adjustment  of  population  takes  place 
without  such  violent  shifts  as  the  past  generation  ex- 
perienced. 

27.  Movement  to  cities  must  continue.  —  It  is  not 
necessary,  or  desirable,  that  all  farmers'  sons  remain 
on  the  farms.  Much  less  is  any  large  movement  back  to 
the  farm  desirable.  There  will  always  be  some  persons 
born  in  cities  who  are  country-minded.  These  should  go 
to  the  farm.  But  so  long  as  farmers  become  more  efficient, 
we  will  need  a  smaller  and  smaller  per  cent  of  the  popula- 
tion engaged  in  farming.  Farming  paid  so  poorly  that 
the  flood  to  cities  continued  a  little  too  long.  It  has 
already  been  stopped.  It  cannot  be  reversed.  We  will 
now  expect  a  gradual  current  from  farm  to  city,  and  a 
limited  number  of  persons  will  always  be  going  from  the 
city  to  the  farm. 

28.  How  then  may  the  city  secure  cheaper  food?  — 
A  considerable  part  of  the  agitation  on  this  subject  is  a 
desire  of  those  who  live  in  cities  to  get  more  persons  to  go 
to  tlie  farms  in  the  hope  that  food  prices  will  go  down.  We 
are  not  likely  to  again  see  sudi  clieap  food.  Prices  were 
so  ruinously  low  that,  even  with  virgin  soil,  the  farmers 
could  not  make  wages.     During  this  period  of  cheap  food, 


SHALL    I  BE  A    FARMER?  35 

a  very  complicated  and  expensive  system  of  handling  farm 
products  developed.  In  1912,  the  New  York  State  Food 
Investigating  Commission  estimated  that  the  food  supply 
for  New  York  City  cost  350  million  dollars  with  all  charges 
paid  at  the  railroad  terminals.  This  same  food  cost  500 
million  dollars  when  it  reached  the  kitchens.  This  in- 
crease of  45  per  cent  is  attributed  to  wasteful  methods 
rather  than  excessive  profits.  The  farmers  did  not  receive 
the  350  millions,  as  the  products  had  already  been  handled 
many  times.  Persons  who  desire  to  reduce  the  price  of 
food  had  best  turn  their  attention  to  the  very  wasteful 
system  of  handling  farm  products  from  the  time  they  leave 
the  farm  until  they  reach  the  consumer.  This  is  a  city 
problem.  The  farmer  is  not  likely  to  solve  it.  He  does 
not  understand  city  conditions.  Half  of  the  present  ex- 
pense of  trading  in  farm  products  ought  to  be  eliminated. 
Here  is  a  problem  worthy  of  the  best  thought. 

29.  Back-to-the-village  movement.  — -  "  It  seems  to 
me  that  what  is  really  needed  is  a  back-to-the-village 
movement.  This  should  be  more  than  a  mere  suburban 
movement.  The  suburban  development  enlarges  the 
boundaries  of  the  city.  It  is  perfectly  feasible,  however, 
to  establish  manufacturing  and  other  concentrated  enter- 
prises in  villages  in  many  parts  of  the  country.  Persons 
connected  with  these  enterprises  could  own  small  pieces 
of  land,  and  by  working  these  areas  could  add  something 
to  their  means  of  support  and  also  satisfy  their  desire  for 
a  nature-connection.  In  many  of  the  villages  there  are 
vacant  houses  and  comparative!}'  unoccupied  land  in 
sufficient  number  and  amount  to  house  and  establish 
many  enterprises;  and  there  would  be  room  for  growth. 
If  the  rural  village,  freed  from  urban  influences,  could  then 
become  a  real  integrating  part  of  the  open  country  sur- 


36  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

rounding  it,  all  parties  ought  to  be  better  served  than  now, 
and  the  social  condition  of  both  cities  and  country  ought 
to  be  improved.  We  have  over-built  our  cities  at  the 
expense  of  the  hamlets  and  the  towns.  I  look  for  a  great 
development  of  the  village  and  small  community  in  the 
next  generation ;  but  this  involves  a  re-study  of  freight 
rates."  ^ 


THE    FARM    AS    A    HOME    FOR    PERSONS    OTHERWISE 
EMPLOYED 

30.  The  farm  as  a  home.  —  There  are  relatively  few 
city  persons  who  become  farmers  in  the  sense  of  making 
their  living  from  a  farm,  but  all  over  the  country  there  are 
thousands  of  persons  who  live  on  farms  while  continuing 
their  town  or  city  business.  Around  every  town  and 
village,  and  for  many  miles  out  from  the  large  cities,  there 
are  persons  who  have  some  other  business  than  farming, 
but  who  live  on  farms.  The  custom  is  most  prevalent  in 
the  East,  not  only  because  of  the  larger  population  and 
more  railroads,  but  because  farms  are  so  cheap.  There 
are  great  numbers  of  persons  who  have  demonstrated 
that  this  is  a  desirable  and  economical  way  to  live. 

In  Tompkins  County,  New  York,  the  United  States 
Census  includes  as  farms  about  500  small  places  that  are 
occupied  by  persons  who  have  some  business  other  than 
farming.  Many  large  farms  are  occupied  in  the  same  way. 
This  county  is  not  near  any  large  city.  It  is  250  miles 
from  New  York.  Ithaca,  in  the  center  of  the  county,  has 
a  population  of  about  15,000.  There  are  a  few  small 
villages.     A  study  of  the  larger  places  in  six  townships  was 

1  L.  H.  Bailey,  The  Country-Life  Movement,  p.  26;  see  also  his  con- 
trasts between  the  country-life  and  back-to-thc-land  movements. 


SHALL   I  BE  A    FARMER  f  37 

made  in  1907.  Besides  the  small  places,  there  were  42 
farms  among  983  that  were  occupied  by  persons  whose  chief 
business  was  something  other  than  farming.  Many  others 
derived  some  income  from  outside  work. 

Among  the  occupations  represented  on  the  42  farms 
were  :  laborers,  politicians,  carpenters,  mechanics,  engineers, 
store  keepers,  mail  carriers,  road  commissioners,  teachers 
and  professors,  salesmen,  stock  dealers,  butchers,  millers, 
lawyers,  glass  blowers,  creamerymen,  and  others. 

The  average  size  of  the  farms  was  eighty  acres.  The 
average  capital  invested  was  $3804.  Some  of  the  owners 
worked  on  their  farms  nights  and  mornings.  Most  of 
them  worked  during  their  vacations  and  other  spare  time. 
This  time  averaged  about  one-fourth  of  the  year.  On  the 
average  the  farm  receipts  were  $296  above  the  farm 
expenses.  The  average  pay  for  their  regular  work  was 
$614. 

With  the  same  investment  they  could  have  lived  in 
about  equally  good  houses  in  town,  but  would  not  have 
had  farm  products  for  home  use  and  would  probably  not 
have  earned  much  of  the  $296.  By  living  on  farms  they 
have  gained  half  of  their  food  and  about  $300  per  year 
besides.  They  have  increased  their  incomes  by  about 
50  per  cent,  besides  having  the  use  of  a  house  and  farm 
products. 

As  an  example,  one  man  worked  most  of  the  year  as  a 
farm-hand,  for  which  he  received  $375.  He  owned  a  farm 
of  twenty  acres,  with  a  total  capital  of  $1326.  He  kept 
two  old  horses  worth  $110,  raised  two  and  one-half  acres 
of  potatoes  from  which  he  sold  $200  worth,  kept  one 
pure-bred  Holstein  cow  from  which  he  raised  a  heifer  calf 
worth  $50,  and  sold  $93  worth  of  milk.  He  also  kept 
about  sixty  hens  from  which  he  sold  $109  worth  of  eggs. 


38  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

Other  sales  were  hay  $89,  hogs  $85,  poultry  $6.  His  farm 
receipts  exceeded  the  expenses  by  $202.' 

The  farm  evidently  offers  an  excellent  opportunity 
for  persons  who  are  otherwise  employed  but  who  can 
arrange  to  live  on  a  farm.  The  living  expenses  are  much 
reduced,  and  the  farm  may  frequently  be  a  source  of 
revenue  besides. 

31.  An  example  of  a  city  man  on  a  farm.  —  On  one  of 
the  farms  mentioned  above,  a  careful   daily  record  was 


Fig.  9.  —  The  farm  garden  that  produced  $80.12  worth  of  products. 

kept  of  the  produce  furnished  for  home  use.  Most  of 
the  time  the  family  consisted  of  five  persons.  They  were 
experienced  in  farm  work,  as  both  parents  had  grown  up 
on  farms.  The  farm  had  been  purchased  three  years 
before,  at  which  time  all  the  small  fruits  were  set.  The 
apples,  cherries,  and  pears  came  from  a  small  orchard 
that  also  produced  fruit  for  sale.  The  garden  contained 
three -fourths  of  an  acre.  Considerable  care  had  been 
given  to  planning  and  developing  it  for  three  years,  but 

1  New  York,  Cornell  Bulletin  295,  p.  562. 


SHALL   I  BE  A   FARMER?  39 

the  garden  was  so  arranged  that  only  a  small  amount  of 
labor  was  involved.  All  the  labor,  except  the  gathering 
of  products,  was  done  by  hired  help.  It  required  about 
100  hours  and  cost  $21.16.  The  horse  labor  was  valued 
at  $5.52.  The  garden  was  the  best  one  seen  in  the  county, 
so  that  it  represents  the  possibility  and  not  the  average. 

Table  4  shows  the  number  of  times  that  products  were 
gathered  and  the  amount  that  these  would  have  cost,  if 
purchased  at  the  local  stores.  The  number  of  meals  of 
each  was  more  than  the  times  gathered,  as  enough  for 
more  than  one  meal  was  usually  brought  in. 

It  will  be  seen  that  this  family  makes  an  unusually 
large  use  of  milk,  eggs,  and  apples.  In  the  next  year,  a 
little  less  garden  produce  was  grown,  but  more  cherries, 
peaches,  plums,  and  quinces  were  raised,  and  a  veal  calf 
was  butchered  for  home  use.  The  purchased  food  for  this 
household  amounted  to  $225.10  for  the  year.  It  would 
not  be  safe  for  a  city  family  without  farm  experience  to 
count  on  doing  so  well.  It  must  also  be  remembered 
that  the  products  are  charged*  at  what  they  would  have 
cost  to  buy.  If  one  were  selling,  the  milk  would  have  been 
3  cents  instead  of  6,  and  many  other  things  in  about  this 
proportion. 

On  this  farm  of  90  acres  the  receipts  for  products  sold 
paid  all  expenses  except  interest  and  left  $135  to  spare. 
The  family,  therefore,  received  this  amount,  .the  use  of 
the  house,  and  the  farm  products  used  in  the  house  as 
interest  on  the  investment.  If  they  had  lived  in  town, 
the  same  investment  would  have  been  required  to  buy  an 
equally  good  house.  The  reduction  in  the  cost  of  living  en- 
abled the  family  to  save  money.  They  could  not  have 
saved  much  of  the  salary,  if  they  had  lived  in  town.  Of 
course,  they  had  certain  inconveniences  that  some  persons 


40 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


Table  4.  —  Farm  Products  Used  by  a  Family  Living  on  a 
Farm  but  Employed  in  a  City 


Garden  products. 

Asparagus        

Beans,  string        

Beans,  for  winter,  8  qt.      .     .     , 

Beets 

Beets,  for  wanter,  2  bu.      .     .     . 

Blackberries 

Cabbage      

Carrots  for  winter,  ^  bu.    .     .     , 

Celery,  350  for  winter        .     ,     . 

Chard 

Currants,  18  qt 

Gooseberries,  17  qt 

Grapes,  60  qt 

Horseradish 

Lettuce       

Onions         '.     . 

Onions,  for  winter  and  to  pickle 

Peas        

Potatoes,  new 

Potatoes,  24  bu.  for  winter    .     . 

Radishes 

Raspberries 

Rhubarb 

Salsify 

Spinach 

Strawberries,  45  qt 

Sweet  corn 

Sweet  corn,  to  dry 

Squash,  summer 

Squash,  for  winter         .     .     .     . 

Tomatoes         

Tomatoes,  to  cellar  for  fall     .     . 
Orchard  and  farm. 

Apples,  37 1  bu.         

Cherries,  44  qt 

Peaches,  f  bu 

Pears,  1  bu 

Eggs,  32U  doz 

Poultry,  38  chickens     .     .     .     . 

Milk,  3009  qt.      ...... 

Wood .     . 


Times 
Gathered 


31 
27 

9 

3 


2 

15 

5 

23 
33 

21 
17 
12 

15 
15 
13 


Value 


$4.56 

1.91 

.80 

.41 

.50 

.30 

1.00 

.30 

15.00 

.13 

1.80 

1.70 

3.00 

.20 

.84 

.17 

.95 

1.51 

2.40 

18.00 

1.06 

3.83 

.73 

5.00 

1.36 

5.40 

.78 

.75 

.30 

1.00 

3.68 

.75 

29.25 
2.21 
1.00 
2.00 

81.36 

20.90 
180.54 

10.00 

S407.38 


SHALL   I  HE  A   FARMEJi?  41 

would  not  accept,  even  if  they  did  have  to  spend  all  their 
income. 

SOME  THOUGHTS  FOR  THE  FARM  BOY 

32.  The  choice  of  an  occupation.  —  One  of  the  most 
important  decisions  in  the  life  of  every  person  is  the  choice 
of  an  occupation.  One  should  carefully  consider  the 
advice  of  his  parents  and  friends,  but  the  final  decision 
must  be  made  by  each  individual  for  himself.  It  is 
not  at  all  necessary  that  every  boy  follow  his  father's 
occupation.  What  distinguishes  America  from  the  old 
world  is  the  mobility  of  its  society.  Every  boy  may  do 
what  he  likes.  He  is  not  held  by  tradition.  We  must 
strive  to  maintain  this  freedom  for  all  time.  It  is  just 
as  important  as  a  free  government. 

Each  person  should  choose  the  occupation  in  which  he 
will  l)e  of  most  use  in  the  world.  Even  from  the  selfish 
standpoint,  this  is  usually  best.  The  ultimate  rewards 
in  money  and  in  pleasure  are  usually  largest  when  one  is 
doing  the  work  that  he  can  best  do. 

The  farm  boy  has  had  a  good  apprenticeship  that  would 
require  several  years  to  acquire.  This  is  a  valuable  train- 
ing for  any  occupation,  but  is  likely  to  be  of  most  value 
in  farming  or  in  experiment  station  or  agricultural  college 
work. 

The  high  salaries  paid  in  cities  are  misleading.  They 
sound  much  larger  than  they  really  are,  when  the  cost  of 
living  is  considered. 

If  one  is  sure  that  he  prefers  some  other  occupation  and 
that  he  has  a  fair  chance  for  success  in  it,  he  should  cer- 
tainly not  be  a  farmer.  But,  in  many  instances,  the  dislike 
of  farming  is  merely  a  "  case  of  the  blues."  Periods  of 
discouragement  come  to  every  one  regardless  of  his  occu- 


42  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

pation;  a  change  of  occupation  will  not  prevent  them. 
There  is  no  occupation  that  looks  good  when  one  is  con  • 
sidering  all  its  disadvantages.  Unfortunately,  human 
nature  is  such  that  we  are  likely  to  see  the  bright  side  of 
the  other  man's  work  and  the  dull  side  of  ours.  If  one  is 
to  succeed  in  any  occupation,  he  must  learn  to  work  when 
he  had  rather  not,  and  to  keep  at  it  even  if  he  is  tired. 

Farming  is  not  an  easy  task.  It  is  worth  while.  It  is 
worthy  of  a  man.  It  combines  physical  labor  with 
thought,  so  that  it  calls  for  an  all-around  development. 

If  one  is  to  be  a  farmer,  he  should  prepare  for  the  business. 
An  agricultural  college  education  is  desirable  to-day. 
But  a  young  man  is  preparing  not  only  for  to-day,  but  for 
forty  years  from  now,  when  such  an  education  will  be 
much  more  necessary.  The  college  course  will  help 
during  every  one  of  these  forty  years.  We  rarely  see  a 
man  who  regrets  having  gone  to  school  too  long.  Nearly 
every  one  regrets  having  stopped  so  soon.  Lack  of  money 
need  not  discourage  anyone.  Any  boy  who  has  good 
health  can  work  his  way  through  an  agricultural  college, 
and  there  are  ways  of  starting  farming  with  little  money. 

It  is  not  advised  that  any  young  man  be  a  farmer. 
It  may  be  very  much  better  for  him  to  leave  the  farm, 
but  before  leaving  the  farm,  he  should  consider  both 
sides  of  the  question. 


CHAPTER  2 
TYPES    OF   FARMING 

DEFINITIONS 

Types  of  farming  may  be  defined  in  many  ways,  de- 
pending on  the  contrast  in  mind.  The  most  frequent  dis- 
tinction made  is  in  source  of  income,  as  hog-farming, 
wheat-farming,  apple-growing,  and  so  on,  or  the  distinc- 
tion may  l)e  more  general,  as  live-stock-farming,  grain- 
farming,  and  fruit-farming. 

The  type  may  also  be  defined  as  to  its  diversity.  If 
only  one  important  product  is  sold,  the  farming  is  special- 
ized. If  several  important  products  are  sold,  it  is  called 
diversified  or  general  farming.  This  subject  is  discussed 
in  Chapter  3. 

Sometimes  the  contrast  in  the  intensity  of  operation  is 
considered.  Systems  that  call  for  very  intensive  working 
of  the  land  are  called  intensive ;  those  that  use  less  labor 
for  the  area  are  called  extensive.  This  subject  is  discussed 
in  Chapter  4. 

As  to  the  maintenance  of  fertility,  farming  may  be  de- 
fined as  exploitive,  when  little  attention  is  given  to  keeping 
up  the  fertility  of  the  land,  or  conservative,  when  con- 
siderable attention  is  given  to  this  question.  This  subject 
is  discussed  in  Chapter  5. 

33.  Factors  that  determine  the  type  of  farming.  — 
The  chief  factors  that  determine  the  type  of  farming  in 
any  region  are :  climate,  soil,  topography,  transportation, 

43 


44  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

distance  to  market  or  shipping  point,  market  demand  and 
supply,  relation  of  the  type  to  other  competing  types  in  the 
region,  price  of  land,  capital,  labor  supply,  custom,  insects, 
diseases  or  other  pests,  and  personal  desires  of  the  farmer. 


EXAMPLES   OF   THE   INFLUENCE   OF   CLIMATE,    SOIL,    AND 
TOPOGRAPHY 

These  physical  conditions  are  the  most  important  factors 
in  determining  the  type  of  farming,  but  it  is  the  combina- 
tion of  these  with  many  other  factors  that  settles  the  mat- 
ter. The  other  factors  may  be  so  important  as  to  result 
in  a  type  of  farming  very  different  from  what  the  physi- 
cal facts  suggest. 

34.  Corn.  —  For  corn-production,  there  is  no  other 
large  area  of  land  in  the  world  that  has  such  a  favorable 
combination  of  soil,  climate,  and  topography  as  is  found 
in  the  corn-belt  of  the  United  States.  Corn  requires  a 
mellow  soil  well  supplied  with  vegetable  matter,  heavy 
rainfall  in  the  summer  months,  hot  days,  and  hot  nights. 
In  addition,  if  it  is  to  be  raised  economically,  the  land 
must  be  fairly  level.  The  fact  that  it  must  be  culti- 
vated and  must  have  abundant  rain  makes  it  an  unsatis- 
factory crop  for  hillsides,  as  the  land  will  wash  too  much. 

On  first  thought,  it  would  appear  that  one  might  supply 
the  plant  food  by  fertilizers,  and  the  water  by  irrigation, 
but  this  is  not  so  simple  as  at  first  appears.  Corn  requires 
more  organic  matter  than  most  crops.  Fertilizers  do  not 
take  the  place  of  organic  matter.  If  the  soil  is  not  well 
supplied  with  decaying  vegetable  matter,  it  is  usually 
necessary  to  supply  it  by  adding  farm  manure  or  plowing 
under  sod.  Some  crops  are  much  easier  to  raise  with 
fertilizers  alone. 


TYPES   OF  FARMING  45 

The  necessary  water  might  be  suppHed  by  irrigation, 
but  corn  does  not  respond  to  irrigation  as  well  as  some 
other  crops.  The  dry  air  of  an  irrigated  region  is  favorable 
for  some  crops  and  injurious  to  others.  Corn  can  be 
grown  by  irrigation,  but  the  increase  in  crop  compared  with 
humid  regions  is  not  so  great  as  is  the  increase  with  some 
other  crops,  such  as  alfalfa,  sugar  beets,  and  wheat. 


Fig.  10.  —  Distribution  of  the  cotton  crop  in  190'J.     One  dot  represents 

8000  bales. 

We  may  expect  that  corn  will  always  be  the  leading 
crop  in  the  Middle  West.  There  are  a  number  of  types  of 
farming  based  on  corn  as  the  major  crop. 

35.  Cotton.  ^—  For  cotton,  there  is  no  other  large  area 
in  the  world  that  has  such  a  favorable  combination  of 
climate  and  soil  as  is  found  in  southern  United  States. 
We  may  expect  that  cotton  will  remain  the  leading  crop 
of  the  South.  Thus  far,  it  has  been  grown  too  exclusively, 
just  as  corn  has  been  grown  with  too  little  rotation  in  the 
corn-belt.     In  both  regions,  rotations  and  types  of  farm- 


46 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


ing  are  developing  that  center  around  the  important  crop 
without  making  it  the  only  crop. 

36.  Oats.  —  Oats  require  a  cool,  moist  climate  for  best 
development.  A  climate  that  is  best  for  corn  is  too  hot 
for  the  best  yield  of  oats.  If  oats  are  grown  on  the  best 
corn  land,  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  plant  them  as 


Fig.  11.  —  Distribution  of  the  oat  crop  in   1909.     One  dot  represents 
500,000  bushels. 


early  as  possible  so  as  to  give  them  the  benefit  of  the  cool 
part  of  the  season.  A  little  farther  south  oats  do  not  pay 
at  all,  but  if  we  go  far  enough  south,  the  oats  can  be  sown 
in  the  fall  and  thus  grow  during  the  cool  season,  and  make 
a  good  crop.  The  best  oat  section  is  so  far  north  that 
the  weather  is  too  cool  and  the  season  too  short  for  the 
best  yield  of  corn.  Wheat  is  another  cool  weather 
crop. 

Oats  do  not  require  as  rich  a  soil  as  corn.     Fair  crops 
of  oats  can  be  grown  on  land  that  is  so  poor  that  it  will  not 


TYPES    OF  FARMING  \1 

produce  a  crop  of  corn.  If  the  land  is  too  rich,  it  is  in- 
jurious to  oats,  as  they  grow  too  much  straw  and  too  little 
grain,  and  are  likely  to  lodge. 

37.  Potatoes  are  much  like  oats  in  their  chmatic  re- 
quirements. They  require  cool,  moist  weather  and  do 
best  on  rather  light,  deep  soils.  Most  of  the  potato 
supply  of  the  country  is  grown  north  of  the  best  corn  land. 
In  the  irrigated  sections  of  Colorado,  Utah,  and  neighbor- 
ing states,  potatoes  do  well.  The  altitude  keeps  the 
weather  cool,  and  the  moisture  is  supplied  by  irrigation. 
Early  potatoes  are  grown  in  the  South  during  the  cool 
season.  Early  planting  provides  fairly  good  climatic 
conditions,  and  the  high  prict^s  received  make  up  the  dif- 
ference. 

Potatoes  will  grow  on  acid  soils.  This  makes  them  the 
most  important  cash  crop  on  many  of  the  poor  soils  of 
northeastern  United  States.  Root  crops,  such  as  sugar 
beets  and  mangels,  are  favored  by  the  cool,  moist  weather, 
but  these  require  considerable  lime,  so  that  they  are  not 
much  grown  except  on  good  soils.  The  potato  yields  of 
Europe  are  often  cited  to  show  how  poorly  we  in  America 
farm.  It  would  be  just  as  fair  to  compare  corn  yields  in 
the  best  parts  of  Illinois  with  Europe  to  show  how  poorly 
they  farm  in  Europe.  We  can  never  hope  to  equal  the 
potato  yields  of  Europe,  because  their  climate  is  so  much 
better  for  the  crop.  For  the  same  reason,  they  can  never 
hope  to  equal  our  corn  yields.  The  European  climate 
is  much  better  for  root  crops,  oats,  wheat,  and  grass. 
The  Gulf  Stream  is  quite  as  much  responsible  for  their 
good  yields  of  these  crops  as  are  the  methods  of  farming. 

38.  Grass  crops  require  cool,  moist  conditions  for  their 
best  growth.  One  of  the  great  problems  of  southern 
United    States    is    the    grass    question.     Except    in    the 


48  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

mountains,  the  states  south  of  Kentucky  find  it  difficult 
to  raise  good  pastures  or  hay. 

The  best  grass  section  of  the  United  States  is  north  of 
Washington  and  east  of  the  one-hundredth  meridian.  In 
this    section,  timothy  and  red  clover  are  the  great  hay 


Fig.  12.  —  Distribution  of  the  hay  and  forage  crop  in  1900.     One  dot  rep- 
resents 25,000  tons. 

plants.  Alsike  clover,  alfalfa,  and  redtop  are  also  im- 
portant. 

Alfalfa  is  a  lime-loving  plant.  It  grows  well  on  the 
limestone  soils  anywhere  in  eastern  United  States.  If 
the  soil  is  not  too  short  of  lime,  it  may  be  made  to  grow 
well  by  applying  lime.  But  if  the  subsoil  is  very  seriously 
deficient  in  lime,  it  is  not  often  possible  to  grow  alfalfa 
successfully. 

Timothy  and  red  clover  are  medium  in  lime  require- 
ments. They  grow  well  on  soils  that  do  not  have  enough 
lime  for  alfalfa.     There  are  many  areas  in  this  grass  region 


TYPES   OF  FARMING  49 

that  require  lime  for  the  best  growth  of  these  crops, 
particularly  on  the  hill  lands  from  southern  Illinois  to 
New  England.  Redtop  will  grow  well  on  soils  that  are 
too  poor  or  too  short  of  lime  to  grow  timothy,  Alsike 
clover  is  somewhat  more  hardy  in  this  and  other  respects 
than  red  clover. 

The  great  pasture  plant  of  this  section  is  Kentucky 
blue-grass,  sometimes  called  June-grass  {Poa  pratensis). 
"White  clover  is  also  important.  On  soils  that  are  too 
poor  to  grow  Kentucky  blue-grass,  Canada  blue-grass 
(Poa  compressa)  is  the  most  important  pasture  plant. 
Kentucky  blue-grass  requires  much  more  lime  than  Can- 
ada blue-grass.  If  a  soil  contains  enough  lime  or  is  well 
supplied  with  lime,  the  Kentucky  blue-grass  will  usually 
run  out  the  Canada  blue-grass. 

If  a  region  grows  Kentucky  blue-grass  or  alfalfa  very 
abundantly,  it  is  practically  certain  that  the  soils  still  have 
a  fair  supply  of  limo. 

West  of  the  one-hundredth  meridian,  the  chief  hay  plant 
is  alfalfa,  and  the  chief  pasture  plants  are  the  native 
grasses. 

South  of  Washington,  various  forage  plants  are  grown. 
Cow  peas  are  one  of  the  important  hay  plants,  but  these 
must  be  planted  every  year  and  are  hard  to  cure.  On 
some  of  the  limestone  soils,  alfalfa  is  grown.  Bermuda 
grass  and  Johnson  grass  are  grown,  but  these  are  bad  weeds. 
The  pasture  and  hay  question  in  the  South  is  a  difficult 
one,  as  the  very  climatic  conditions  that  make  it  a  great 
cotton  region  are  unfavorable  for  grass.  It  is  not  a 
natural  grass  country. 

39.  Apples.  —  The  apple  crop  is  primarily  adapted  to 
the  region  that  was  by  nature  heavily  wooded.  In  New 
York  there  are  orchards  with  trees  over  one  hundred  years 


50  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

old  that  are  still  bearing.  These  trees  have  persisted  in 
spite  of  neglect,  because  the  climate  is  so  favorable  for  tree 
growth.  The  heat  that  makes  a  good  crop  of  corn  or 
cotton  is  unfavorable  for  apples.  Fruit  trees  do  not  re- 
quire so  rich  a  soil  as  is  necessary  for  corn.  The  peach  tree 
is  as  readily  injured  by  too  rich  a  soil  as  by  too  poor  a  soil. 
On  the  best  corn  land,  apples  and  pears  blight  badly. 
There  are  some  good  apple  regions  in  irrigated  sections 
of  the  West,  but  their  area  is  small  in  comparison  with  the 
vast  area  in  the  Eastern  States  that  is  adapted  to  apples. 
In  1909,  New  York  raised  more  apples  than  all  the  states 
west  of  Iowa. 

40.  Truck-crops.  —  Crops  that  require  much  hand 
labor,  as  truck-crops,  are  usually  grown  on  light  soils, 
because  such  soils  will  grow  a  crop  earlier  and  because 
there  is  much  h.and  labor.  Sandy  soils  are  much  easier 
worked  than  clay  soils.  The  muck  or  peat  soils  are  best 
of  all.  There  are  two  general  truck  regions,  one  about  each 
city  and  one  in  the  South  for  supplying  early  vegetables. 
.  41.  Topography.  —  Danger  of  erosion  may  require  that 
the  land  be  kept  in  sod.  Steep  hillsides  may  prevent  the 
use  of  machinery.  When  the  work  was  done  with  hand 
tools,  the  side  hills  were  not  at  so  great  a  disadvantage. 
Many  side  hills  have  been  turned  into  hay,  pasture,  or 
forest,  or  have  been  abandoned  because  machinery  could 
not  be  used  on  them  to  good  advantage.  Every  new 
machine  that  is  invented  makes  the  earning  of  a  living 
more  difficult  for  the  man  who  cannot  use  the  machine.  If 
he  must  compete  with  a  machine  by  his  hand  labor,  he 
must  reduce  his  standard  of  living  or  change  his  type  of 
farming. 

42.  Animals.  —  Live-stock  is  also  much  affected  by  cli- 
mate.    One  of  the  most  striking  cases  is  the  failure  of  the 


TYPES    OF  FARMING  51 

horse  in  hot  regions.  The  work  must  then  be  done  by  mules 
or  cattle,  or  in  the  hottest  regions  by  the  water  buffalo. 

Indirectly,  the  climate  affects  stock  raising  by  limiting 
the  grazing  period.  Many  attempts  have  been  made 
to  introduce  beef  cattle  in  the  North  Atlantic  States,  but 
the  grazing  period  is  too  short.  Pastures  are  cheap,  but 
the  winter  feeding  period  is  too  long. 

In  spite  of  land  values  and  feed  prices,  England  and 
Scotland  are  better  situated  than  New  England  for  raising 
meat.  The  long  grazing  season  more  than  makes  up  the 
difference  in  prices  of  land  and  winter  feed. 

By  limiting  the  crops  grown,  the  climate  and  soil  limit 
the  animals  raised.  All  of  the  noted  horse-breeding 
sections  of  the  world  are  regions  in  which  the  soil  is  well 
supplied  with  lime  and  mineral  matter.  The  quality  of 
the  horses  from  Kentucky  is  well  known.  They  are 
grazed  on  })lu(?-grass  that  grows  on  a  soil  rich  in  lime.  The 
Perch(Ton  horse  in  France  is  raised  on  a  limestone  soil. 
The  rich  valley  of  the  Clyde  River  furnished  the  oppor- 
tunity for  th(>  production  of  the  Clydesdale. 

Such  illustrations  may  Ijc  multiplied  indefinitely. 
Among  the  first  things  to  consider  in  deciding  on  a  type 
of  farming  are  climate  and  soil. 

RELATION   OF   TRANSPORTATION   TO   TYPE    OF    FARMING 

43.  General  principles.  —  The  fundamental  principle 
is  that  products  that  are  easily  and  cheaply  shipped  and 
that  will  stand  shipment  will  usually  be  produced  far  from 
the  centers  of  population,  l)ecauso  near  market  they  can- 
not comp(>te  with  bulky  and  ])('rishablo  products.  Perish- 
able products  or  products  that  are  bulky  for  their  value 
will  usually  pay  best  when  grown  near  the  consumers- 


52  FARJf  MANAGEMENT 

All  other  factors  limiting  the  type  of  farming  affect  the 
result,  but  next  to  soil  and  climatic  limitations  the  freight 
and  express  rates  and  cost  of  handling  produce  are  the  most 
important  factors  in  determining  the  type  of  farming. 

The  problem  seems  to  be  little  understood  by  farmers, 
agricultural  colleges,  or  city  business  men.  Experience 
forces  farmers  to  abandon  types  that  are  too  far  out  of 
adjustment,  but  frequently  the  wrong  cause  is  assigned. 
44.  Transportation  and  crop-prices  and  crop-produc- 
tion. —  Table  5  gives  the  average  farm  values  of  certain 
crops  on  December  first  for  the  five  years  1907-1911  in- 
clusive. The  states  are  arranged  in  order,  extending 
from  the  Rocky  Mountains  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 
Most  of  the  products  are  cheaper  in  eastern  Nebraska  and 
western  Iowa  than  at  any  other  point.  From  here  they 
are  shipped  both  ways.  All  prices  are  compared  with 
the  Iowa  price  as  100  per  cent.  The  primary  factor  in 
fixing  the  differences  in  those  prices  is  the  cost  of  trans- 
portation to  the  centers  of  population.  For  prices  of  other 
products  and  for  other  states,  see  Table  83,  page  576. 

Massachusetts  has  a  good  climate  for  hay-production, 
but  the  local  supply  is  not  sufficient  to  feed  the  horses  and 
dairy  cows.  Hay  must  be  shipped  in.  The  high  cost  of 
shipment  raises  the  price,  not  only  of  the  hay  shipped  in, 
but  of  that  grown  in  Massachusetts.  Corn  is  also  shipped 
in,  but  the  cost  of  shipment  is  less  in  proportion  to  its  value. 
The  farm  value  of  hay  is  226  per  cent  of  the  Iowa  price, 
corn  166  per  cent,  oats  157  per  cent.  Wheat  is  so  little 
grown  that  no  farm  price  is  reported.  The  Massachusetts 
farmer  can  grow  wheat  and  can  get  perhaps  a  fifth  more 
than  the  Iowa  price,  but  he  can  get  two  and  one-fourth 
times  the  Iowa  price  for  his  hay.  He  would  be  very 
foolish  to  grow  wheat. 


TYPES   OF  FARMING 


53 


Table  5.  —  Average  Farm  Price  on  December  1  for  Certain 
Crops  for  Five  Years  (1907-1911).'  With  Co.mparisons 
WITH  THE  Iowa  Price  as  100  Per  Cent. 


Corn 

Wheat 

Oats 

Hay 

Potatoes 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Cent 

Cent 

Cent 

Cent 

Cent 

Price 

of 

Price 

of 

Price 

of 

Price 

of 

Price 

of 

Iowa 

Iowa 

Iowa 

Iowa 

Iowa 

Price 

Price 

Price 

Price 

Price 

Colorado 

$.69 

147 

$.85 

98 

$.50 

135 

.$  9.67 

113 

$.67 

110 

Nebraska 

.47     100 

.84 

97     .37 

100 

7.15 

83  '  .72 

118 

Iowa   .     . 

.47    100 

.87 

100     .37 

100 

8.58 

100  1   .61 

100 

Illinois     . 

.49    104 

.93 

107     .40 

108 

11.62 

135  j   .73 

120 

Indiana    . 

.50    106 

.94 

108     .40 

108 

12.00 

140!   .68 

111 

Ohio    .     . 

.55    117 

.97 

111     .43 

116 

12.55 

146 

.67 

110 

New  York 

.73 

156 

1.00 

115     .51 

138 

14.71 

171 

.64 

105 

Massa- 

chusetts 

.78 

166 

1   .58 

157 

19.40 

226 

.83 

136 

'  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Yearbook,  1910,  pp.  505,  518,  530,  560,  566,  and 
Yearbook,  1911,  pp.  524,  535,  546,  569,  573.      ' 


A  ton  of  hay  in  Massachusetts  will  buy  25  bushels  of 
corn.  In  Iowa  it  would  buy  only  18  bushels.  The  same 
ton  would  buy  33  bushels  of  oats  in  Massachusetts,  but 
would  buy  only  23  bushels  in  Iowa.  It  is  easy  to  see  why 
the  New  England  farmer  comes  so  near  to  a  one-crop 
system.  There  are  whole  townships  in  New  England  in 
which  there  are  no  threshing  machines.  Corn  is  raised  for 
the  silo,  and  some  is  raised  for  grain.  Comparatively  little 
small  grain  is  raised  east  of  Syracuse,  New  York,  and  still 
less  east  of  the  Hudson  River.  In  this  section,  shavings 
and  sawdust  are  largely  used  for  bedding.  Straw  is  too 
valuable.  In  1909,  the  area  of  hay  grown  in  New  England 
was  five  times  the  total  area  of  all  other  crops  combined. 
A  common  practice  in  New  England  is  to  keep  nearly  all 


5-4  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

the  farm  in  grass.  When  a  spot  gets  poor,  it  is  plowed 
up,  farmed  for  a  year  or  two,  and  re-seeded.  These  small 
irregular  patches  of  crops  in  the  center  of  a  hay  field  are 
amusing  to  a  Western  farmer,  but  the  New  Englander  has 
a  reason  for  his  practice.  Potatoes,  truck  crops,  or  fruit 
combined  with  hay  and  corn  silage  for  the  dairy  make  a 
very  profitable  kind  of  farming  for  this  region. 

As  we  go  westward,  the  relative  prices  change.  In  New 
York  a  ton  of  hay  will  buy  20  bushels  of  corn  or  29  bushels 
of  oats  as  compared  with  18  of  corn  and  23  of  oats  in 
Iowa.  In  1909,  hay  occupied  62  per  cent  of  the  area  in 
crops  in  New  York  and  40  per  cent  of  the  crop  area  in 
Pennsylvania,  29  per  cent  in  Ohio,  and  25  per  cent  in  Iowa. 
From  the  prices  it  would  appear  as  if  corn  might  be  the 
second  crop  in  New  York,  but  oats  are  second  in  area 
and  corn  third.  In  value,  hay  is  first  and  potatoes  second. 
There  is  much  land  not  adapted  to  corn  that  grows  oats 
fairly  well.  Oats  are  also  desired  as  a  crop  with  which  to 
seed  grass.  The  straw  is  also  worth  more  than  in  Iowa. 
Winter  wheat  is  grown  to  some  extent  in  New  York  and 
Pennsylvania.  Considerable  of  the  wheat  in  New  York 
is  sown  after  beans  without  plowing.  This  greatly 
reduces  the  cost  of  production.  In  Pennsylvania  it  is 
often  sown  after  corn  and  potatoes  without  plowing. 
The  wheat  is  also  a  good  crop  with  which  to  seed  grass. 

Similar  comparisons  can  be  made  for  other  regions  and 
other  crops.  These  cases  are  cited  to  show  the  principle 
involved  and  how  it  works  under  modifying  conditions. 
It  is  difficult  to  compare  Northern  and  Southern  states  on 
this  basis.  Feed  prices  are  usually  higher  in  the  South,  but 
the  pasture  season  is  longer,  so  that  more  of  the  meat  and 
butter  can  be  grown  on  pasture.  Pasture  is  also  im- 
portant for  hogs  and  hens.     Poultry  obtain  more  green 


TYPES   OF  FARMING  55 

feed  and  more  insect  food  in  the  South.     This  partly 
offsets  the  high  feed  cost. 

45.  Relation  of  cost  of  production  to  disposition  of 
crops.  —  No  subject  seems  to  be  more  generally  mis- 
understood than  the  relation  of  crops  to  stock.  The  usual 
theory  seems  to  be  that  if  corn  and  hay  can  be  easily  and 
cheaply  grown,  they  should  be  fed  to  live-stock.  Perhaps 
the  basis  of  this  error  is  the  absurd  practice  of  some  in- 
stitutions of  charging  feed  to  animals  at  the  cost  of  pro- 
ducing it  rather  than  at  what  it  can  be  sold  for,  less  the 
cost  of  marketing.  Some  farmers  are  able  to  produce 
hay  at  a  cost  of  $5  per  ton.  On  other  farms  it  costs  $25. 
When  this  is  charged  to  cows,  it  should  be  counted  at  its 
selhng  value.  The  cost  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  value. 
The  farmer  who  produced  it  at  a  cost  of  So  might  feed  it 
to  steers  and  get  $8  for  it ;  by  this  means  he  could  make 
a  profit  on  the  two  things,  and  steers  might  be  hailed  a 
very  profitable  enterprise.  This  sort  of  figuring  misleads 
some  farmers.  If  hay  is  worth  $15  a  ton  on  the  market,  a 
farmer  is  very  foolish  to  sell  it  to  steers  for  $8,  no  matter 
what  it  cost  him.  It  would  be  equally  unwise  to  sell  it  if 
he  could  feed  it  to  cows  and  get  $16  for  it.  If  the  man 
whose  hay  costs  him  $25  can  get  only  $16  for  it  by  feeding 
it  to  cows,  he  will  lose  money  on  the  two  enterprises,  but 
he  should  not  blame  the  cOws  for  his  loss. 

Every  crop  should  be  disposed  of  in  the  way  that  will 
pay  best,  regardless  of  the  cost  of  producing  it.  In  figuring 
on  live-stock,  manure  should  of  course  be  counted  at  what 
it  is  worth,  but  no  more  and  no  less. 

46.  Transportation  as  afifecting  hog-production. — It 
requii-es  about  5  to  6  pounds  of  corn  to  produce  a  pound 
of  hog.  The  pound  of  pork  can  be  shipped  at  a  much  less 
cost  than  the  5  pounds  of  corn.     The  opinion  that  corn 


56 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


and  hogs  go  together  and  that  the  center  of  the  corn-belt 
is  the  center  of  the  hog-raising  region  is  almost  universal. 
Figures  13  and  14  show  how  far  this  is  from  the  truth. 
The  center  of  the  hog-raising  region  is  where  feed  is  cheap- 
est. The  best  place  to  raise  hogs  is  as  far  west  as  one  can 
go  and  yet  be  sure  of  a  corn  crop.  Even  between  the 
neighboring  states  of  Iowa  and  Illinois,  the  adjustment 
is  very  striking.  Illinois  produces  more  corn  than  Iowa, 
but  has  only  about  half  as  many  hogs.  At  the  time  of 
the  last  census,  Illinois  had  one  hog  for  each  150  bushels  of 
corn  raised.  Iowa  had  one  for  each  79  bushels.  A  dif- 
ference of  2  cents  per  bushel  in  the  price  of  corn  has  been 
sufficient  to  make  this  surprising  difference  in  the  number 
of  hogs. 

Table  6.    Number  of  Hogs  and  Pigs  Three  Months  Old 
OR  Older  on  April  1,  1910 


Colorado 
Nebraska     . 
Iowa  .     .     ,     , 
Illinois     . 
Indiana  . 
Ohio  .     .     . 
New  York    . 
Massachusetts 


Hogs  and  Pigs  Born  before 
Jan.  1,  1910. 


110,922 
1,970,895 
4,299,499 
2,603,062 
1,906,258 
1,574,009 

364,375 
•      62,368 


Comparing  Illinois  and  New  York,  the  difference  is  still 
greater.  In  1910,  the  freight  rate  on  corn  in  carload  lots 
from  Chicago  to  New  York  was  8.2  cents  per  bushel,  or  if 
shipped  by  lake  5.77  cents.  The  freight  rate  on  dressed 
hogs  was  45  cents  per  100  pounds.^     About  30  bushels  of 

» U-  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Yearbook,  1910,  pp.  649-650. 


TYPES   OF  FARMING 


57 


Fiu.  13.  —  Distribution  of  the  corn  crop  in  1909.     One  dot  represents 
1,000,000  bushels. 


Fig.  14.  —  Distribution  of  hogs  in  1909.    One  dot  represents  14,000  hogs. 


58  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

corn  is  required  to  grow  a  300-pouncl  hog.  To  ship  this 
corn  to  New  York  would  cost  $2.46  in  carload  lots.  The 
300-pound  hog  would  produce  about  225  pounds  of  dressed 
pork  that  could  be  shipped  for  $1.01.  On  every  hog 
thus  produced,  the  freight  rates  make  a  difference  of  $1.45 
in  favor  of  growing  the  hog  in  Illinois.  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  the  difference  is  much  more  than  this.  The  com- 
missions and  cost  for  handling  corn  are  greater  than  for 
handling  the  pork  produced  by  it.  The  farm  price  of 
corn  is  24  cents  more  in  New  York  than  in  Illinois,  or 
a  difference  of  about  three  times  the  freight  cost. 

The  average  farm  price  of  corn  on  December  first  for  five 
years  (1907-1911)  has  been  47  cents  in  Iowa  and  73  cents 
in  New  York.  If  an  Iowa  farmer  uses  30  bushels  of  corn 
to  grow  a  300-pound  hog,  his  feed  will  be  worth  $14.10. 
The  same  feed  would  be  worth  $21.90  in  New  York,  or  a 
difference  in  cost  of  $7.80  on  every  300-pound  hog  raised. 
There  are  no  figures  showing  the  average  price  that  farmers 
receive  for  hogs.  By  correspondence,  I  have  obtained 
prices  paid  to  farmers  at  the  same  date  in  the  two  regions. 
The  difference  is  rarely  as  much  as  one  cent  a  pound,  or 
about  $3  per  hog.  This  would  leave  a  difference  of  about 
$4  per  hog  in  favor  of  Iowa.  If  the  hogs  are  pastured  on 
clover,  the  Iowa  farmer  has  a  still  greater  advantage,  as 
the  difference  in  the  price  of  hay  that  is  thus  lost  is  still 
more  in  his  favor. 

A  considerable  number  of  hogs  are  raised  in  New  York 
to  consume  waste  products,  such  as  whey,  skim  milk, 
garbage  from  the  cities  and  villages.  Aside  from  hogs  thus 
fed,  most  of  the  hogs  are  grown  for  home  use.  On  April 
1,  1910,  there  was  an  average  of  three  hogs  and  pigs  per 
farm  in  New  York.     In  Iowa  the  average  was  35. 

It  often  pays  to  raise  products  for  home  use  that  it  would 


TYPES   OF  FARMING  59 

not  pay  to  raise  to  sell.  The  difference  between  the  price 
that  a  farmer  receives  and  what  he  would  have  to  pay  at 
the  meat  market  is  a  good  profit. 

Since  one  family  does  not  need  as  many  pigs  as  one  sow 
will  raise,  only  a  portion  of  the  farmers  keep  hogs.  A 
limited  number  of  pigs  may  be  raised  to  weaning  age  and 
sold  to  neighbors  at  a  good  profit.  Two  litters  are  usually 
raised  per  year.  Or  one  litter  is  raised  while  the  hog  is 
being  grown  for  home  use.  Those  who  are  in  this  business 
usually  find  that  they  cannot  afford  to  raise  hogs  to  sell. 
They  must  be  disposed  of  as  pigs. 

Occasionally,  hogs  are  so  high  in  price  compared  with 
feed  that  grain  can  1)3  used  in  the  Eastern  States  to  produce 
pork  at  a  profit,  l)ut  when  this  is  the  case,  the  profit  is 
very  much  larger  in  Iowa.  This  results  in  an  increased 
production  there  and  a  decrease  in  price.  When  one  is 
on  the  danger  line  for  the  profitable  production  of  any 
article,  he  needs  to  be  very  careful  about  entering  the 
business  when  prices  are  temporarily  high. 

47.  Transportation  as  affecting  beef-production.  — 
Because  the  North  Atlantic  States  have  cheap  pasture 
land,  many  persons  have  thought  that,  for  this  reason, 
these  regions  should  produce  beef  cattle.  But  the  pas- 
tures can  be  used  for  only  five  to  six  months,  and  the  value 
of  winter  feed  is  so  high  that  the  industry  is  usually  un- 
profitable. It  usually  requires  about  10  pounds  of  corn 
and  10  pounds  of  hay  or  the  equivalent  in  other  feeds  to 
produce  a  pound  of  steer,  good  farmers  do  better.^  If  we 
assume  that  a  1000-pound  steer  is  half  grown  on  pasture, 
we  would  have  the  following  comparison  :  — 

1  The  Standard  Cattle  Co.  fed  51,393  steers  in  eleven  years.  For  each 
pound  of  gain  these  steers  averaged  13.3  pounds  of  grain  and  9.4  pounds 
of  hay.    W.  A.  Henry,  Feeds  and  Feeding,  7th  edition,  p.  399. 


60 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


Iowa 

New  York 

Pasture  two  summers 

2^  tons  hay 

89  bu.  corn 

$20.00 
21.45 
41.83 

$10.00 
36.77 
64  97 

$83.28 

$111.74 

These  figures  show  that,  even  if  we  assume  that  pasture 
is  worth  twice  as  much  in  Iowa  as  in  New  York,  the 
winter  feed  much  more  than  offsets  the  difference.  Using 
more  or  less  feed  than  is  called  for  above,  or  using  a  silo, 
may  affect  the  figures,  but  does  not  affect  the  principle. 
It  is  the  cost  of  the  year's  feed  and  not  the  cost  of  the 
feed  for  one  season  that  must  be  considered.  For  profit- 
able beef  production,  we  must  have  a  very  long  grazing 
period,  or  must  have  cheap  winter  feed,  or  both.  England 
is  better  situated  than  our  North  Atlantic  States  for  beef 
production,  because  it  has  such  a  long  grazing  season. 

The  adjustment  that  the  farmers  have  made  to  meet  the 
conditions  is  shown  in  Table  7.  On  April  1, 1910,  Nebraska 
and  Iowa  had  more  than  one-fourth  as  many  yearling 
steers  and  bulls  (3  months  to  15  months)  as  they  had 
cows  and  heifers  (16  months  old  or  older).  Illinois, 
Indiana,  and  Ohio  had  less  than  one-sixth  as  many  as 
cows, .  and  New  York  and  Massachusetts  had  only  one 
for  25  to  30  cows.  In  these  two  states  practically  no 
steers  are  kept.  The  number  reported  represents  practi- 
cally the  number  of  bulls  kept.  Instead  of  raising  steers, 
these  two  Eastern  States  sell  practically  all  their  bull 
calves  as  veal.  Near  cities,  the  calves  are  often  killed 
at  birth,  as  feed  is  too  expensive  to  make  it  pay  to  keep 
them  to  the  legal  age  for  veal.  The  East  Central  States 
sell  many  of  their  calves  for  veal,  but  raise  some  steers. 


TYPES  OF  FARMING  61 

Table  7.  —  Steers  on  Farms  on  April  1,  1910 


Steers  and  Bulls  Born 

Steers  and  Bulls  Born 

IN  1909  PER  100  Cows' 

BEFORE  1909   PER  100  CoWS 

Colorado  .... 

18 

46 

Nebraska . 

, 

26 

40 

Iowa    .     . 

28 

36 

Illinois 

15 

20 

Indiana     . 

15 

15 

Ohio     .     . 

14 

15 

New  York 

4 

3 

Massachusetts 

3 

3 

'  Number  of  steers  and  bulls  for  each  100  cows  and  heifers  born  before 
Jan.  1,  1909 ;  most  of  these  would  be  2  years  old  or  older. 

The  West  Central  States  raise  nearly  all  their  calves. 
The  age  at  which  the  steers  are  sold  also  shows  an  adjust- 
ment to  feed  prices.  The  Western  States  keep  their  steers 
to  two  or  three  years  of  age,  as  is  shown  by  the  fact  that 
they  have  twice  as  many  of  the  older  ones  as  of  the  year- 
lings. 

48.  Relation  of  transportation  to  sheep-production. — 
Sheep  are  more  efficient  users  of  feed  than  cattle,  but  not 
so  efficient  as  hogs.  On  an  average,  it  takes  about  3.5 
pounds  of  grain  and  5.1  pounds  of  hay  to  produce  a  pound 
of  sheep,^  10  pounds  of  hay  and  10  pounds  of  corn  for  a 
pound  of  steer,  and  5.6  pounds  of  corn  for  a  pound  of  pork. 
The  hog  has  a  still  further  advantage  in  that  in  butchering 
it  dresses  off  about  one-fourth,  while  cattle  and  sheep  dress 
off  about  35-50  per  cent. 

Sheep  will  eat  many  prodilcts  that  cannot  be  well  used 
by  other  stock.  They  help  to  rid  a  farm  of  weeds.  For 
these  reasons,  a  few  sheep  are  kept  as  scavengers  on  many 
farms  where  it  would  not  pay  to  keep  a  large  number. 


^  D.  H.  Doane,  Sheep  Feeding  and  Farm  Management,  p.  71. 


62 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


In  the  bean-growing  sections  of  New  York  and  Michigan, 
sheep  are  kept  because  they  make  good  use  of  bean  pods 
and  cull  beans.  Many  farmers  who  have  pasture,  and 
who  do  not  wish  to  keep  dairy  qows,  keep  sheep.  They 
may  not  pay  very  well,  but  where  feed  is  high,  they  are 
usually  better  than  beef,  and  do  not  interfere  with  farm 
work  as  much  as  dairy  cows. 

Winter  lambs  are  usually  produced  near  market.     They 
are   seldom   produced   in   large   enough   numbers  to   be 


Fig.  15.- 


■Distribution  of  yearling  colts,  1910. 
colts. 


One  dot  represents  400 


shipped  by  freight.  When  raised  near  market  and  shipped 
by  express,  the  cheaper  transportation  may  offset  the 
higher  feed  cost. 

49.  Transportation  in  relation  to  horse-production.  — 
Horses  are  not  so  readily  shipped  as  meat.  They  are 
more  likely  to  be  injured  in  shipment,  and,  in  addition, 
jBUst  become  used  to  a  new  climate  before  they  are  of 


TYPES   OF  FARMING 


OB 


much  use.  The  brood  mare  can  do  nearly  a  full  amount 
of  farm  work  besides  raising  a  colt,  so  that  only  a  small 
part  of  hei;  feed  need  be  charged  to  the  cost  of  raising  colts. 
For  these  reasons,  colts  can  be  raised  where  it  would  not 
pay  to  raise  beef.  Table  8  shows  that  colts  are  most 
numerous  where  feed  is  cheapest,  but  are  raised  to  some 
extent  in  other  states.  When  the  price  of  horses  drops,  it 
is  the  states  with  high-priced  feed  that  are  first  forced  out 
of  colt  production ;  as  the  price  rises  again,  they  are  the 
last  states  to  go  into  the  business. 

Table  8.  —  Colt  Productionti 


Number  op  Horse 
AND   Mule  Colts 
PER  100  Horses 

Colorado 

13 

Nebraska 

13 

Iowa        

13 

Illinois 

12 

Indiana 

11 

Ohio 

9 

New  York 

Massachusetts 

4 

2 

^  Horse  and  mule  eolts  for  each  100  mares,  stallions,  and  geldings  born 
before  1909. 


50.  Relation  of  transportation  to  dairying.  —  Butter, 
condensed  milk,  milk  flour,  and  cheese  are  easily  shipped. 
The  center  of  production  of  these  products  is  constantly 
moving  westward.  Much  distress  has  been  caused  by  the 
persistence  of  butter  making  in  some  Eastern  regions 
that  are  being  forced  out  of  the  business.  In  a  region 
that  has  to  depend  to  a  considerable  extent  on  shipped-in 
feed,  the  competition  with  dairymen  in  the  region  from 
which  the  grain  comes  is  ruinous. 


64  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

Some  of  the  cheese-making  sections  of  the  East  are  able 
to  continue  the  business  by  roughing  the  cattle  through 
the  winter  as  cheaply  as  possible,  and  depending  mostly 
on  the  cheap  feed  furnished  by  pastures  for  cheese  making. 
In  other  cases,  milk  is  shipped  to  the  cities  in  winter  when 
there  is  a  good  demand,  and  cheese  is  made  in  summer. 


Fig.  16.  —  Distribution  of  dairy  cows  in  1910.     One  dot  represents  5000 

cows. 

The  average  price  received  by  farmers  for  butter  in  1910 
and  1911  was  25  cents  in  Iowa,  29  cents  in  New  York, 
and  33  cents  in  Massachusetts  (Table  9).  The  New  York 
farmer  receives  16  per  cent  and  the  Massachusetts  farmer 
32  per  cent  more  than  the  Iowa  farmer.  These  differences 
are  sometimes  cited  to  show  how  rich  the  Eastern  farmer 
ought  to  get  by  making  butter. 

But  the  cost  of  production  has  just  as  much  to  do  with 
profits  as  the  price  received.  Comparing  the  cost  of  raw 
materials  (feed)  in  these  states,  we  find  that  corn  is  56 
per  cent  and  hay  71  per  cent  higher  in  New  York  than  in 


TYPES   OF  FARMING 


65 


Table  9.  —  Average  Price  Received  by  Farmers  for 
Butter  (1910  and  1911)  » 


Colorado     .  . 

Nebraska    .  . 

Iowa       .     .  . 
Illinois   . 
Indiana . 

Ohio  .     .     .  . 

New  York  .  . 
Massachusetts 


Average  Farm 
Price  per  Pound 


29 
21 
25 
24 
22 
24 
29 
33 


Per  Cent  of  the 
Iowa  Price 


116 
84 

100 
96 
88 
96 

116 

132 


'  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Yearbook,  1910,  p.  632;  1911,  p.  634. 

Iowa,  but  that  butter,  the  manufactured  product,  is 
only  16  per  cent  higher.  It  takes  2.5  pounds  of  butter  to 
buy  a  bushel  of  corn  on  a  New  York  farm  and  only  1.9 
pounds  in  Iowa.  It  takes  51  pounds  of^  butter  to  buy 
a  ton  of  hay  on  a  New  York  farm,  but  on  an  Iowa 
farm  it  takes  only  34  pounds.  On  a  Massachusetts  farm 
it  takes  59  pounds  of  butter  to  pay  for  a  ton  of 
hay. 

It  is  evident  that  the  East  cannot  compete  with  the 
Middle  West  in  butter  production.  The  center  of  butter 
production  is  rapidly  shifting  to  the  region  of  cheap  feed. 
Those  farmers  who  persist  in  making  butter  in  regions  of 
high-priced  feed  are  usually  receiving  very  little  for  their 
work.  Sometimes  other  things  are  so  profitable  as  to 
overcome  the  loss  on  butter.  Even  those  farmers  who 
have  special  customers  rarely  receive  enough  to  make  the 
business  very  profitable. 

In  one  county  in  New  York  it  was  found  that  farmers 
who  made  butter  rarely  made  hired-man's  wages,  and 
when  they  did,  it  was  because  the  profits  from  some  other 


66  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

enterprise  more  than  paid  the  loss  on  butter.  Milk 
sold  to  creameries  to  be  made  into  butter  paid  better, 
but  required  extra  good  production  pe"r  cow  to  pay.^  In 
Connecticut,  with  an  extra  good  herd  of  cows,  the  average 
cost  of  producing  butter  for  five  years  (1906-1911)  was 
38  cents  per  pound. ^  The  average  farm  price  of  butter 
for  the  two  years  1910  and  1911  was  33  cents.  At  this 
price,  there  was  an  average  loss  of  $16  per  cow  per 
year. 

Market  milk  must  be  produced  near  the  consumer,  be- 
cause it  is  both  perishable  and  bulky  for  its  value.  But 
it  is  not  free  from  competition.  Within  the  range  of  pos- 
sible shipment  of  any  of  our  cities,  there  are  very  many 
more  cows  than  are  required  to  produce  the  necessary 
milk.  Whenever  cheese  or  butter  prices  drop,  there  is  a 
tendency  for  farmers  who  are  farther  from  the  railroad  to 
sell  milk  instead  of  making  butter.  Along  every  railroad 
that  hauls  milk,  there  is  a  strip  of  land  from  which  all  the 
product  is  sold  as  milk,  but  a  little  farther  back  from  the 
railroad,  it  does  not  pay  to  haul  milk,  so  that  butter  or. 
cheese  are  made.  Milk  trains  can  readily  be  put  on  more 
roads,  or  extend  farther  from  the  cities  if  necessary. 
Some  regions  have  a  milk  train  in  winter,  but  none  in 
summer.  There  is  an  immense  reserve  of  milk  that  can 
be  used  for  butter  or  cheese  when  milk  is  low,  but  that  can 
be  sold  as  milk  whenever  prices  warrant. 

51.  Transportation  and  egg-production.  —  It  is  so 
difficult  to  get  eggs  to  the  consumer  in  good  condition 
that  the  farmer  near  the  market  has  the  advantage.  A 
dozen  eggs  will  buy  16  pounds  of  wheat  in  New  York,  but 
will  l)uy  only  13  pounds  in  Iowa.     The  chief  chicken  food 

1  New  York,  Cornell  Bulletin  295,  p.  483, 
*  Connecticut,  Storrs  Bulletin  73. 


TYPES   OF  FARMING 


67 


in  Iowa  is  corn.  A  dozen  eggs  will  buy  23  pounds  ol  corn 
in  Iowa  and  21  pounds  in  New  York,  24  pounds  in  Massa- 
chusetts, 14  pounds  in  South  Carolina  and  14  pounds  in 
Mississippi.  There  is  about  the  same  diiference  on 
poultry  as  on  eggs.     (Table  10.) 

Table  10. —Average  Price  Received  by  Farmers  for 
Eggs  and  Poultry  (1910  and  1911). i 


Eggs 

Chickens 

Average  Farm 

Per  Cent  of  the 

Average  Farm 

Per  Cent  of  the 

Price 

Iowa  Price 

Price 

Iowa  Price 

Colorado . 

26 

137 

13.4 

140 

Nebraska 

18 

95 

9.1 

95 

Iowa    .     .     . 

19 

100 

9.6 

100 

Illinois 

20 

105 

10.9 

114 

Indiana    .     . 

21 

111 

10.8 

113 

Ohio    .     .     . 

22 

116 

11.3 

118 

New  York    . 

27 

142 

14.4 

150 

Massa- 

chusetts   . 

34 

179 

16.8 

175 

'  U.  S.  D.'pt.  Asr.,  Yearbook,  1910,  pp.  64:^,  644,  and  1911,  pp.  634,  648. 

The  prices  are  the  average.s  for  the  first  of  each  month.  A  farmer  will 
recr>ive  a  lower  average  for  the  total  eggs  or  meat  sold,  beeausc  the  largest 
sales  eom'3  in  thc'  months  of  lowest  prices. 

With  better  methods  of  handling  eggs  and  poultry,  and 
more  promptness  in  shipment,  the  ratio  may  be  changed, 
but  it  appears  as  if  the  regions  near  market  will  always 
find  egg  production  a  profitable  business.  The  home 
market  will  always  be  largely  supplied  by  a  home-grown 
product,  even  though  it  may  ship  in  butter,  flour,  beef, 
and  pork. 

There  seems  to  be  no  question  but  that  hens  pay  Ijetter 
in  the  North  than  in  the  South. 

If  we  assume  that  a  hen  lays  8  dozen  eggs  and  that  there 


68 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


is  5  pounds  of  poultry  sold  for  every  hen  kept,  we  would 
have  the  following  comparisons  :  ^  — 


Massa- 
chusetts 

Iowa 

South 
Carolina 

Mississippi 

8  doz.  eggs  . 

5  lb.  meat    . 

Total     . 

2.72 

.84 
3.56 

1.52 

.48 
2.00 

1.68 

.58 
2.26 

1.52 

.58 

2.10 

The  difference  between  Iowa  and  Massachusetts  is 
enough  to  pay  the  entire  feed  bill  for  a  hen  a  year.  In 
South  Carolina,  corn  costs  more  than  in  Massachusetts. 
The  average  egg  production  per  hen  is  about  half  as  much 
as  in  Massachusetts.  Diseases  are  also  worse  in  the  South. 
Poultry  in  the  South  gathers  more  of  its  own  food,  because 
of  the  long  season  for  green  food,  and  because  of  the 
abundance  of  insects.  The  cost  for  housing  is  also  l^ss, 
but  the  cost  of  housing  in  the  North  should  not  be  over 
10  to  20  cents  per  hen  per  year.  After  allowing  for  all 
these  differences,  there  is  no  question  but  that  the  profit  is 
better  in  the  North.  The  South  will  always  raise  poultry 
for  local  use,  as  will  every  other  country,  but  it  is  not  the 
place  to  go  if  one  is  thinking  of  locating  a  poultry  farm. 
Such  a  farm  should  be  located  nearer  large  markets,  or 
might  be  located  in  the  region  of  cheap  food,  if  the  lower 
prices  could  be  overcome  by  care  and  prompt  shipment. 

52.  Fruit  and  vegetables  in  relation  to  transportation. 
—  Fresh  fruits  that  are  very  perishable  must  be  produced 
relatively  near  market.  Apples  may  be  shipped  long 
distances,  but  must  be  protected  from  freezing.      Low- 

'  The  actual  price  received  would,  in  each  case,  be  somewhat  less  than 
the  amounts  given  above,  because  the  prices  are  the  average  by  months. 
More  products  would  be  sold  during  the  months  of  low  prices. 


TYPES   OF  FARMING  09 

priced  apples  are  bulky  for  their  value  and  must,  therefore, 
be  produced  near  market.  Only  the  very  best  are  worth 
shipping  long  distances.  For  this  reason  the  growers 
in  the  Western  States  have  become  skillful  graders  and 
packers.  But  the  largest  apple  market  is  with  the  working 
people,  who  cannot  afford  to  pay  for  fruit  that  is  worth 
shipping  across  a  continent.  For  every  fancy  box  of  apples 
that  is  sold  in  any  city,  many  barrels  of  cheaper  apples 
are  sold.  Most  of  the  growers  in  the  North  Atlantic 
States  strive  for  quantity  and  economy  in  production 
combined  with  fair  quality,  rather  than  sacrifice  both  of 
these  for  quality.  There  is  an  enormous  demand  for  low- 
priced  apples.  Most  farmers  in  the  Central  and  North- 
eastern States  find  that  they  can  make  more  money  by 
supplying  this  demand  than  by  trying  to  compete  for  the 
very  limited  fancy  trade.  The  Baldwin,  Greening,  Ben 
Davis,  and  other  wholesale  types  of  apples  are  usually 
most  profitable. 

Truck  and  vegetable  crops  and  flowers  are,  in  general, 
perishable  and  very  bulky,  hence  are  grown  very  close  to 
cities.  A  city's  truck  crops  usually  come  from  very  near  by  ; 
milk  is  shipped  farther,  eggs  still  farther,  meat  and  flour 
still  farther;  clothing  may  be  shipped  around  the  world. 

The  only  case  in  which  fresh  vegetables  are  shipped  far 
is  when  they  come  from  Southern  to  Northern  markets. 
In  this  case  they  have  no  competition  from  nearer  farms. 
Such  products  compete  with  greenhouses.  Within  the 
same  latitude,  long-distance  shipment  of  truck  is  rarely 
profitable. 

53.  Marginal  regions.  —  With  every  product,  there 
are  regions  of  greatest  profit  and  regions  where  the  type 
is  out  of  the  question,  but  it  is  very  hard  to  draw  the  line 
between  the  two.     In  the  best  regions  there  are  always 


70 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


some  farmers  who  fail  to  make  a  profit.  In  regions  not  so 
well  adapted  to  the  product,  some  farmers  may  have  the 
))iisiness  so  well  organized  as  to  make  a  profit,  but  the 
same  effort  would  make  a  much  greater  success  if  ex- 
pended under  better  conditions. 

This  idea  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  17.    If  each  dot  on  the  left 
of  the  vertical  line  represents  a  farmer  who  is  producing 

LOSS  PROFIT 

NX 


/^ASS. 


Fig.  17.  —  Diagram  showing  comparative  chances  of  making  a  profit  on 
pork  production  on  grain  feed  in  different  states.  Each  dot  on  the  left- 
hand  side  of  the  line  represents  a  farmer  who  would  lose  by  producing 
pork,  and  each  dot  on  the  right-hand  side  represents  a  farmer  making  a 
profit. 

hogs  at  a  loss,  and  each  dot  on  the  right-hand  side  of  the 
line  represents  one  who  is  producing  them  at  a  profit, 
we  will  have  a  distribution  somewhat  as  shown  in  the 
figure.  In  Iowa  most  of  the  farmers  make  a  profit  on 
hogs.  If  the  business  is  well  handled,  it  may  give  a  very 
large  profit ;  if  poorly  done,  it  may  still  pay ;  but  if  too 
badly  managed,  it  is  possible  to  lose  on  the  business. 
In  Ohio,  with  higher-priced  corn,  the  highest  profits 
are  lower  and  the  danger  of  losing  is  much  greater.  In 
New  York  it  is  very  difficult  to  make  a  profit  on  hogs  that 
are  raised  on  grain.      In  Massachusetts  it  is  probably 


TYPES   OF  FARMING  71 

impossible.  It  is  foolish  to  attempt  to  produce  hogs  on 
grain  feed  under  such  unfavorable  circumstances.  The 
same  effort  expended  in  types  of  farming  that  are  adapted 
to  the  region  will  bring  a  much  greater  return. 


RELATION    OF  TYPE   OF  FARMING    TO    DISTANCE  TO    MARKET 
OR    SHIPPING    POINT 

54.  General  principles.  —  The  distance  that  the  farmer 
has  to  haul  his  products  and  the  character  of  the  road 
limit  the  type  of  farming,  but  this  influence  is  not  so 
striking  as  is  the  effect  of  transportation. 

Products  that  are  bulky  for  their  value,  such  as  milk 
and  vegetables,  are  usually  grown  near  the  railroad  or 
market.  But  if  prices  are  high  enough,  the  haul  may  be 
much  farther.  Much  depends  on  the  roads  and  the  size 
of  the  load.  A  full  load  of  milk  may  be  hauled  six  miles 
at  less  cost  per  can  than  it  costs  a  farmer  to  haul  a  few 
cans  a  mile.  Near  some  of  the  large  cities,  immense  loads 
of  vegetables  are  sometimes  hauled  so  far  that  the  load 
has  to  start  in  the  evening  to  reach  the  market  in  the 
morning.  Wool  is  hauled  long  distances.  (Table  11.) 
Sheep,  cattle,  and  horses  can  be  produced  farther  from 
market  than  most  products.  Grain  can  be  profitably 
hauled  for  a  greater  distance  than  hay  or  potatoes. 

In  the  case  of  some  products,  such  as  butter  and  eggs, 
the  cost  of  hauling  would  be  small  if  loads  were  taken,  but 
the  farmer  must  take  these  to  town  frequently.  The  very 
small  amounts  taken  at  one  time  often  make  the  cost 
very  high. 

Farmers  cannot  afford  to  go  to  town  often  enough  in 
summer  time  to  keep  eggs  fresh.  The  poor  quality  of  the 
sgg  supply  and  consequent  low  prices  will  continue  until 


72 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


some  system  of  frequent  delivery  is  started.  Possibly  the 
parcels  post  law  might  be  so  modified  as  to  allow  the  rural 
mail  carrier  to  carry  cases  of  eggs. 

55.    Cost  of  hauling.  —  In  Table  11  are  given  the  average 
distance  to  market,  size  of  load,  and  cost  of  hauling  for 

Table  11.  — Average  Costs  of  Hauling  Products  from  Farms 
TO  Shipping  Point  :    Totals  for  States  Represented  ' 


«  H  S 

Average 

Product  Haulee 

0  ^ 

t. 

•s-g 

t4 

^  t 

ll. 

1^ 

3  a 

•    ^1 

I   1 

P  o  w 

'zoai 

sIfS 

Q(§H 

o  fl 

0  O 

Apples      .     . 

114 

9.6 

0.9 

2,300 

$2.79 

$0.12 

$0.25 

Barley      .     . 

226 

8.8 

.7 

3,970 

2.67 

.07 

.16 

Beans       .     . 

22 

9.0 

.8 

3,172 

2.75 

.09 

.20 

Buckwheat  . 

8 

8.2 

.8 

2,438 

2.90 

.11 

.27 

Corn   .     .     . 

981 

7.4 

.6 

2,696 

1.78 

.07 

.19 

Cotton     .     . 

555 

11.8 

1.0 

1,702 

2.76 

.16 

.27 

Cottonseed  . 

110 

10.7 

.9 

1,654 

2.42 

.15 

.28 

Flaxseed 

51 

10.4 

.7 

3,409 

2.70 

.08 

.15 

Fruit  (other 

than  apples^ 

99 

11.6 

1.1 

2,181 

3.53 

.16 

.28 

Hay     .     .     . 

761 

8.3 

.7 

2,786 

2.32 

.08 

.19 

Hemp       .     . 

7 

5.2 

.7 

3,393 

2.10 

.06 

.23 

Hogs  (live)  . 

316 

7.9 

.7 

1,941 

2.00 

.10 

.25 

Hops        .     . 

14 

11.7 

1.0 

3,665 

3.89 

.11 

.19 

Oats    .     .     . 

798 

7.3 

.6 

2,772 

1.82 

.07 

.19 

Peanuts   .     . 

19 

8.1 

.6 

1,363 

1.67 

.12 

.30 

Potatoes 

569 

8.2 

.7 

2,679 

2.34 

.09 

.22 

Rice    .     .     . 

18 

7.5 

.8 

2,407 

2.70 

.11 

.29 

Rye     .     .     . 

78 

8.4 

.7 

2,625 

2.23 

.08 

.19 

Timothy  seec 

5 

8.0 

.8 

2,410 

1.92 

.08 

.20 

Tobacco 

113 

9.8 

.8 

2,248 

2.28 

.10 

.20 

Vegetables 

(other  than 

potatoes)  . 

152 

9.8 

.9 

1,852 

2.84 

.15 

.31 

Wheat      .     . 

1,051 

9.4 

.8 

3,323 

2.86 

.09 

.19 

Wool        .     . 

41 

39.8 

5.6 

4,869 

21.39 

.44 

.22 

1  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bureau  of  Statistics,  Bulletin  49,  p.  16. 


TYPES   OF  FARMING  73 

many  counties  in  the  United  States.  The  cost  of  hauHng, 
of  course,  changes  constantly,  but  the  time  required  to 
haul  a  given  distance  is  not  likely  to  change  much.  It 
will  be  seen  that  the  average  time  required  to  haul  a 
load  is  about  a  day  for  ten  miles.  Many  factors  affect 
the  rate  of  hauling.  Under  usual  conditions,  farmers 
who  haul  two  miles  or  less  can  haul  three  to  four  loads 
a  day.  If  the  haul  is  two  to  four  miles,  three  loads  are 
commonly  hauled.  For  four  to  six  miles,  two  loads  are 
usually  hauled. 

In  general,  if  the  cost  of  hauling  from  the  farm  to  the 
shipping  point  is  not  over  5  per  cent  of  the  value  of  the 
product,  it  may  be  regarded  as  reasonable.  If  the  cost  is 
10  per  cent,  it  is  very  high.  The  cost  can  often  be  re- 
duced by  hauling  larger  loads. 

56.  Cost  of  hauling  milk.  —  In  nearly  all  parts  of 
the  country  a  large  amount  of  time  is  wasted  in  hauling 
milk.  Not  infrequently,  the  time  spent  is  worth  more 
than  the  milk.  Every  morning,  thousands  of  American 
farmers  take  a  drive  of  from  half  an  hour  to  half  a  day 
with  a  little  milk.  The  trouble  is  that  the  loads  hauled 
are  too  small.  Frequently  one  can  see  a  half  dozen 
farmers  coming  along  the  same  road  with  so  little  milk 
that  one  wagon  might  haul  it  all.  Sometimes  farmers 
have  milk  enough  to  make  a  full  load.  Sometimes  it  can 
be  hired  hauled.  Sometimes  neighbors  can  take  turns 
hauling.  By  these  means  the  cost  can  be  kept  reasonable. . 
The  only  excuse  for  the  many  long  drives  taken  with  a 
can  or  two  of  milk  is  that  the  farmer  has  nothing  else  to  do. 
This  is  an  admission  that  his  type  of  farming  ought  to  be 
changed. 

The  cost  of  hauling  milk  and  of  hiring  it  hauled  in 
Delaware  County,  New  York,  is  given  in  Table  12.     The 


74 


FAUM  MANAGEMENT 


Fig.  18.  —  Going  to  the  creamery  with  two  cans  oJ  milk.     U  lie  cost  of 
hauling  is  excessive. 


Fia.  19. — A  full  load  of  milk  from  many  farms.    The  cost  of  hauling  is 

low. 


TYPES   OF  FARMING 


75 


men  who  haul  for  pay  have  full  loads  so  that  they  can  haul 
it  at  a  low  cost  and  yet  make  wages  for  themselves. 
In  determining  the  cost  when  the  farmer  hauls  the  milk, 
his  time  was  counted  at  15  cents  per  hour,  a  boy's  time 
at  8  cents,  a  team's  at  15  cents  or  8  cents  for  one  horse. 
These  prices  are  very  low.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  cost 
of  hauling  milk  one  mile  is  almost  as  much  as  the  cost 
of  hiring  it  hauled  8  miles.  The  time  taken  to  get  ready 
and  to  hitch  up,  as  well  as  the  size  of  the  load,  make  the 
cost  very  high. 

Table  12.  —  Cost  of  Hauling  Milk  from  the  Farm  to  the 
Creamery,  148  Farms,  Delaware  County,  New  York  * 


Miles  from 

Milk  Hired  Hauled 

Milk  Hauled  by  the  Farmer 

Farm  to 
Creamery 

f  J  umber  of 
Farms 

Cost  for  Each 

Dollar's  Worth  of 

Milk 

Number  of 
Farms 

Cost  for  Each 

Dollar's  Worth  of 

Milk 

0.5 

1 
2 
3 

4 

5-6 

7-8 
9-10 
13 

3 
12 

18 

12 

24 

9 

4 

1 

.043 
.042 
.055 
.061 
.060 
.065 
.068 
.068 

19 

16 

13 

6 

5 

3 

3 

.047 
.064 
.066 
.097 
.155 
.138 

.199 

1  Thesis  by  E.   H. 
Cornell  University. 


Thompson,  Department  of    Farm  Management, 


These  daides  had  good-sized  herds,  averaging  28  cows. 
With  smaller  herds  it  is  evident  that  the  cost  of  hauling 
is  very  higli  when  the  farmer  hauls  his  own  milk  only. 
The  profit  from  milk  production  is  not  high  enough  to 
stand  very  high  cost  for  hauling. 

From  21  farms  the  milk  was  hauled  by  the  farmer  to  a 


76  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

platform  from  whicli  it  was  hired  hauled.  The  average 
distance  to  the  platform  was  .55  miles.  The  cost  to  haul 
for  each  dollar's  worth  of  milk  averaged  $.058.  The 
average  distance  from  the  platform  to  the  creamery  to 
which  the  milk  was  hired  hauled  was  5.4  miles,  and  the 
cost  for  each  dollar's  worth  of  milk  averaged  $.056.  It 
cost  the  farmer  more  to  hitch  up  and  haul  the  milk  half  a 
mile  than  to  hire  it  hauled  ten  times  as  far. 

Because  of  the  high  cost  of  hauling,  we  find  along  every 
railroad  that  carries  milk  to  cities  a  more  or  less  irregular 
boundary  line  at  varying  distances  from  the  railroad, 
beyond  which  the  milk  is  made  into  butter  or  sold  to 
creameries,  or  cheese  factories.  If  the  price  of  milk  rises 
a  little,  there  is  a  very  large  supply  that  is  available,  on 
a  day's  notice.  It  is  this  great  reserve  supply  that  makes 
it  difficult  to  raise  the  price  of  milk. 

In  choosing  a  farm  or  deciding  on  a  type  of  farming, 
one  must  consider  the  cost  of  hauling  the  products. 


RELATION   OF    SUPPLY    AND    MARKET   DEMAND     TO   TYPE   OF 

FARMING 

Of  the  many  phases  of  this  subject,  the  following  are 
here  discussed :  relation  of  yield  per  acre  to  value  of  the 
crop  ;  changes  in  comparative  values  of  products ;  periods 
of  overproduction  and  underproduction ;  special  demands 
of  certain  markets ;  supplying  the  home  market ;  and 
supplying  the  farm  family. 

57.  Relation  of  yield  per  acre  to  value  of  the  crop.  — ■ 
Few  other  industries  are  so  subject  to  violent  changes  in  pro- 
duction and  consequent  changes  in  prices.  When  a  manu- 
facturer buys  a  certain  number  of  hides,  he  knows  fairly 
definitely  how  many  shoes  he  will  have  to  sell.     But  when 


TYPES   OF  FARMING 


77 


a  farmer  plants  a  certain  area  of  wheat  or  cotton,  he 
knows  little  about  what  his  yield  will  be.  In  the  ten 
years,  1901  to  1910,  the  yield  of  potatoes  in  New  Jersey 
has  varied  from  59  to  132  bushels  per  acre.  Corn  in 
Illinois  has  varied  from  21.4  to  39.8  bushels.     Wheat  in 


■' 

/ 

\ 

ij 

\ 

t  j 

/! 

\ 

^^ 

i 

! 

"-. 

*\_\ 

/ 

NO 

Rt^A 

L     / 

\ 

/' 

/ 

\ 

Y 

\ 

^s 

/  ( 

\ 

// 

\\ 

1 1 

\ 

1 

\;- 

\ 

1 1 

\'\ 

: 

^ 

1 1 

\  \ 

II 

\ 

1 

\ 

j 

Fig.  20.  —  Rainfall  for  .June,  July,  and  August  and  yield  of  corn  per  acre.^ 

Average  yields  of  corn  1888  to  1902. 

Average  rainfall  for  June,  July,  and  August. 

Kansas  has  varied  from  10.4  to  18.5  bushels.  Cotton  in 
Texas  has  varied  from  125  to  225  pounds. ^  Such  varia- 
tions are  to  be  regularly  expected  for  all  crops.  The 
chief  cau.se  for  them  is  the  variation  in  rainfall.  It  is 
this  great  uncertainty  that  makes  the  opportunities  for 
speculation  in  farm  products,  and  for  gambling  on  future 
prices. 

The  relation  of  rainfall  to  yield  of  corn  in  the  corn-belfc 

1  U.  S.  Dcpt.  Agr.,  Yearbook,  1903,  pp.  215-244. 
«  U.  S.  Dapt.  Agr..  Yearbook,  1910. 


78 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


states  is  shown  in  Figure  20.     The  yield  of  corn  follows 
almost  exactly  the  rainfall  for  June,  July,  and  August. 

For  products  that  are  easily  stored,  such  as  cotton  and 
grain,  the  years  of  highest  yields  are  often,  but  not  always, 
the  years  of  highest  value  per  acre.  But  for  perishable 
crops,  like  potatoes,  cabbages,  and  apples,  the  years  of 
high  production  are  usually  the  years  of  lowest  value  per 
acre.  More  perishable  crops,  as  fresh  vegetables  and  straw- 
berries, are  still  more  subject  to  violent  changes  in  price. 

Table  13.  —  Relation  of  Yield  per  Acre  to  Value  per  Acre 
OF  Corn,  Cotton,  and  Potatoes  in  the  United  States  ^ 


Corn 

Cotton 

Potatoes 

Year 

Yield 
per 
Acre 

Value 
per 
Acre 

Yield 

of  Lint  per 

Acre 

Value 

of  Lint  per 

Acre 

Yield 
per 
Acre 

Value 
per 
Acre 

1891  .    . 
1892.    . 

1893  .    . 

1894  .    . 

1895.  . 

1896.  . 

1897.  . 

1898.  . 
1899  .    . 
1900.    . 
1901  .    . 
1902.    . 
1903  .    . 

1904.  . 

1905.  . 

1906.  . 
1907  .    . 

1908.  . 

1909.  . 

1910.  . 
1911  .    . 

Bu. 
27.0 

23.1 
22.5 
19.4 
26.2 

28.2 
23.8 
24.8 
25.3 
25.3 
16.7 
26.8 
25.5 
26.8 
28.8 
30.3 
25.9 
26.2 
25.5 
27.7 
23.9 

$10.98 

9.09 

8.21 

8.86 

6.64 

6.06 

6.26 

7.10 

7.66 

9.02 

10.09 

10.81 

10.82 

11.79 

11.88 

12.06 

13.38 

15.88 

15.20 

13.37 

14.77 

Lb. 

179.4 
205.0 
148.8 
191.7 
155.6 
124.1 
181.9 
219.0 
184.0 
194.4 
169.0 
188.5 
.  174.5 
204.9 
186.1 
202.5 
178.3 
194.9 
156.8 
170.7 
207.7 

$13.10 
17.22 
10.42 

8.82 
11.83 

8.19 
12.00 
12.48 
13.32 

Bu. 

93.7 

61.5 

70.3 
62.4 

100.6 
91.1 
64.7 
75.2 
88.6 
80.8 
65.5 
96.0 
84.7 

110.4 
87.0 

102.2 
95.4 
85.7 

106.8 
93.8 
80.9 

$33.53 
40.65 
41.71 
33.43 
26.73 
26.08 
35.37 
31.11 
34.60 
34.78 
50.27 
45.22 
51.99 
49.96 
53.67 
52.29 
58.86 
60.50 
58.59 
52.35 
64.64 

15.61 
21.32 
17.89 
20.47 
20.41 
18.54 
16.9() 
21.80 
24.24 
18.28 

I  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Yearbook,  1900,  1910,  and  1911. 


TYPES  OF  FAHMINO  79 

The  average  yields  per  acre  and  values  per  acre  for  corn, 
cotton,  and  potatoes  in  the  United  States  for  21  years 
are  given  in  Table  13.  One  might  expect  that  an  increase 
in  the  yield  of  corn  would  give  an  increased  value  per 
acre,  and  a  decrease  in  yield  decrease  the  value  per  acre. 
For  corn  the  yield  and  value  have  gone  in  the  same 
direction  10  times  and  in  opposite  directions  10  times.  For 
potatoes  the  yield  and  value  have  gone  in  the  same  direc- 
tion 5  times  and  in  opposite  directions  15  times. 

A  very  low  yield  of  potatoes  seems  always  to  be  worth 
more  than  a  large  crop.  Even  with  corn,  we  find  the 
17-bushel  yield  of  1901  worth  more  than  the  25-bushel 
crop  of  the  preceding  year,  and  almost  as  much  as  the 
27-bushel  crop  of  the  following  year.  In  the  case  of 
potatoes,  the  results  are  very  striking.  In  1891,  the  aver- 
age yield  per  acre  was  94  bushels,  and  the  value  per  acre 
was  $34.  The  next  year  the  yield  dropped  to  62  bushels, 
but  the  value  per  acre  was  $41.  In  1894,  the  yield  was 
62  bushels  with  a  value  of  $33.  The  next  year  the  yield 
jumped  to  101  bushels,  but  the  value  dropped  to  $27  per 
acre.  Two  years  later  the  yield  again  dropped  to  65 
bushels,  but  the  value  per  acre  rose  to  $35.  Again  we 
see  the  66-bushel  yield  in  1901  worth  more  than  the 
larger  crops  of  the  years  preceding  and  following.  In 
general,  the  years  of  very  large  crops  of  potatoes  bring 
low  returns  per  acre,  and  very  small  crops  bring  high 
returns.  This  is  merely  another  way  of  showing  how 
easily  the  potato  market  is  affected  by  too  many  or  too 
few  potatoes. 

After  a  year  of  good  prices,  all  the  newspapers  are 
filled  with  advice  about  increasing  the  area  of  potatoes 
or  doubling  the  yield  per  acre.  We  constantly  see  figures 
given  to  show  how  many  billions  of  dollars  better  off  the 


80  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

farmers  of  a  state  would  be  if  they  followed  some  par- 
ticular method  that  would  double  crops.  These  results 
always  assume  that  the  prices  would  be  unaffected,  —  an 
assumption  that  is  so  absurd  as  to  be  humorous.  If  Mr. 
John  Jones  could  double  his  crop,  and  have  the  world 
crop  remain  tlie  same,  lie  might  receive  all  the  good 
things  promised.  But  when  tlie  general  production  is 
too  great,  the  price  drops  so  that  the  crop  is  usually 
worth  less  than  a  normal  crop.  Perishable  products 
are  constantly  meeting  the  peril  of  overi)roduction.  In 
1912,  beautiful  peaches  rotted  in  Texas,  bec^ause  they 
were  not  worth  picking.  Watermelons  often  meet  this 
fate.  In  1896,  thousands  of  bushels  of  apples  were  left 
on  the  trees,  because  they  were  not  worth  picking.  In 
the  spring  of  1910,  potatoes  sold  on  some  farms  for  10 
cents  a  bushel.  It  was  in  1898  that  corn  sold  for  8  cents 
in  Nebraska.  It  is  desirable  that  production  be  increased, 
but  a  sudden  increase  is  very  unfortunate  for  city  as  well 
as  for  country.  The  low  prices  please  the  consumer,  but 
discourage  the  farmer,  and  result  in  a  too  violent  decrease 
in  production  that  pleases  no  one. 

One  reason  why  this  question  is  not  better  understood 
is  because  a  community  may  have  a  large  crop  in  a  year 
when  there  is  a  general  shortage  of  the  crop  and  conse- 
quently get  high  prices,  or  a  community  may  have  a 
short  crop  in  a  year  of  good  crops.  These  figures  are  for 
the  whole  country  and  reflect  the  general  condition  of  the 
country.  They  show  that  in  general  the  farmers  receive 
as  much  or  more  for  the  potato  crop  in  years  of  a  general 
short  crop. 

One  other  factor  enters  into  the  question,  so  far  as  the 
individual  is  concerned.  It  is  the  amount  of  the  product 
consumed  on  the  farm  by  the  family,  by  stock,  or  used 


TYPES   OF  FARMING 


81 


as  seed.  This  amount  is  more  or  less  constant.  In  the 
years  of  poor  production,  the  net  amount  to  sell  may  be 
so  small  that  the  higher  prices  will  not  compensate  for 
the  short  crop.  The  price  of  potatoes  seems  to  be  high 
enough  so  that  the  total  value  of  the  crop  sold  is  likely 
to  be  highest  in  the  years  of  small  crops.  Crops  that  are 
partly  fed  nearly  always  pay  the  farmer  best  in  years  of 
good  crops,  because  in  poor  years  the  amount  left  after 
feed  and  seed  is  deducted  is  so  small. 

The  prosperity  of  the  farmer  is,  of  course,  influenced  by 
the  condition  of  the  country,  so  that  high  yields  and  low 
prices  are  in  part  offset  by  general  business  conditions. 

58.  Variation  in  relative  values  of  farm  products.  —  The 
relative  prices  of  farm  products  are  constantly  changing. 

The  value  of  wheat  on  the  farm  has  been  decreasing 
relative  to  the  prices  of  corn,  oats,  eggs,  and  most  other 
products.  (Table  14.)  Thirty  years  ago  a  bushel  of 
wheat  would  buy  4  dozen  eggs ;  now  it  buys  only  2.7 
dozen.     It  would  then  buy  2  bushels  of  corn;    now  it 

Table  14.  —  Comparative  Farm  Prices,  Showing  what  a 
Bushel  of  Wheat  would  Buy  at  Different  Periods, 
FROM  Tables  81  and  82. 


Bushels  of 

Bushels  of 

Dozens  of 

Corn 

Oats 

EggsI 

1866-1870     

2.2 

2.9 

3.8 

1871-187.5 

2.3 

2.8 

3.8 

1876-1880 

2.7 

3.1 

5.1 

1881-188.5 

2.0 

2.5 

4.0 

1886-1890 

2.0 

2..5 

3.9 

1891-189.5 

1.6 

2.1 

3.2 

1896-1900 

2:.i 

2.9 

3.7 

1901-1905 

1.6 

2  2 

2.6 

1906-1910 

1.7 

2.2 

2.7 

'  The  prjce  of  eggs  used  is  the  city  wholesale  price,  Table  82. 


82 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


buys  only  1.7  bushels.  It  would  then  buy  2.5  bushels 
of  oats ;  now  it  buys  only  2.2  bushels. 

Barley  has  decreased  in  price  relative  to  other  grains, 
but  during  the  past  few  years  seems  to  be  rising  again. 
(Table  81.) 

Horses  have  shown  the  most  striking  increase.  Fifteen 
years  ago  a  horse  would  buy  156  bushels  of  oats ;  now  it 
will  buy  238  bushels.  It  would  then  buy  5.1  tons  of  hay ; 
now  it  buys  8.7  tons.  It  would  then  buy  127  bushels  of 
corn ;   now  it  buys  182  bushels. 

All  these  shifts  in  price  affect  the  type  of  farming.  The 
area  of  wheat  in  the  United  States  decreased  16  per  cent 
from  1899  to  1909 ;  hay  increased  17  per  cent,  corn  4 
per  cent,  oats  19  per  cent.  The  relatively  low  prices  now 
secured  for  wheat  are  doubtless  the  chief  cause  for  its 
decrease  in  acreage. 

Table    15.  —  Prices   op   Various   Products   Compared   with 
THE  1896-1900  Prices  as  100  per  cent.     From  Table  82. 


1896-1900 
1901-1905 
1906-1910 


Corn 

Oats 

Wheat 

Beeves 

HOGB 

Sheep 

Butter 

% 

% 

.  % 

% 

% 

% 

% 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

163 

154 

113 

110 

143 

126 

122 

179 

185 

131 

122 

162 

150 

143 

Egos 

% 

100 
154 
183 


In  Table  15  it  is  shown  that  since  1896  to  1900  the  prices 
of  corn,  oats,  and  eggs  have  been  rising  more  rapidly  than 
the  prices  of  wheat,  beef,  hogs,  sheep,  and  butter.  As 
population  increases,  we  must  expect  that  grain  will  rise 
in  price  relative  to  meat  and  butter.  In  China  and  Japan, 
this  process  has  gone  so  far  as  to  practically  eliminate 
animal  food  except  eggs  and  chickens.  The  hen  is  a 
much  more  efficient  user  of  food  than  other  animals. 


TYPES   OF  FARMING 


83 


The  margin  of  profit  on  animals  is  constantly  becoming 
closer,  so  that  better  stock  and  better  feeding  will  con- 
tinue as  serious  problems. 

Table  16.  —  Comparative  Farm  Prices,  Showing  what  a 
Horse  Would  Buy  at  Different  Periods,  from  Tables 
80  and  81. 


1866-1870 
1871-1875 
1876-1880 
1881-1885 
1886-1890 
1891-1895 
1896-1900 
1901-1905 
190&-1910 


Bushels  of 
Oats 


153 
184 
179 
194 
2.32 
191 
156 
189 
238 


Tons  of  Hay 


5.7 
5.3 
6.1 
7.2 
8.5 
6.6 
5.1 
6.9 
8.7 


Bushels  of 
Corn 


117 
152 
156 
151 
183 
148 
127 
137 
182 


59.  Cycles  of  over-  and  under-production  and  ways  of 
foretelling  them.  —  Man  is  so  constituted  that  he  is  too 
likely  to  think  that  present  conditions  are  to  continue. 
If  we  have  a  wet  year  or  two,  we  think  that  it  will  always 
be  wet ;  if  good  prices,  these  are  to  remain  forever.  In 
the  case  of  prices,  it  is  the  very  feeling  of  certainty  that 
present  conditions  are  to  continue  that  makes  it  impos- 
sible for  them  to  do  so.  One  of  the  most  important  gifts 
for  man  to  cultivate  is  his  ability  to  forecast  the  future. 
This  ability  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  business  assets. 

The  usual  guide  that  is  followed  in  determining  what 
crops  and  animals  to  produce  is  the  profits  of  the  last 
year  or  two,  but  since  prices  may  be  temporarily  high  or 
low,  longer  periods  should  be  considered.  Many  factors 
arc  involved.  The  yields  in  the  community  may  be  good 
in  a  year  of  poor  crops,  or  the  community  may  have  poor 
crops  in  a  year  of  general  overproduction  and  low  prices. 


84  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

Add  to  these  uncertainties  the  fact  that  the  weather  has 
nearly  as  much  to  do  with  the  total  crop  as  the  acreage, 
and  it  is  no  wonder  that  the  farmer  finds  it  difficult  to 
tell  what  acreage  to  plant.  With  the  annual  crops,  the 
acreage  is  kept  fairly  close  to  the  country's  needs.  The 
longer  the  time  required  to  grow  a  product,  the  worse  the 
periods  of  over-  and  under-production  become.  A  short- 
age of  an  annual  crop  may  be  made  up  in  a  year,  but  it 
takes  ten  to  twenty  years  to  adjust  the  area  of  apples, 
and  fifty  to  a  hundred  years  to  grow  a  lumber  crop  to 
supply  a  shortage  in  lumber. 

Apples  in  the  Northeastern  States  are  a  good  crop  with 
which  to  illustrate  this  point.  If  the  supply  of  apples  is 
short,  prices  will  be  high.  If  this  condition  continues  for 
a  few  years,  planting  will  be  encouraged,  but  the  trees 
planted  will  have  no  effect  on  the  next  year's  crop.  Prices 
may  go  still  higher  and  so  stimulate  more  planting.  This 
condition  may  continue  for  twenty  years,  after  which 
comes  the  deluge  of  apples,  with  more  trees  coming  on 
every  year.  This  is  what  happened  during  the  past 
generation.  Apples  paid  well  from  1854  to  1864.  From 
1864  to  1874  prices  were  very  high.  They  continued 
fairly  good  till  1878.  They  then  dropped  and  continued 
to  drop  till  1896,  when  thousands  of  bushels  were  not 
picked.  Since  1896,  prices  have  been  rising,  and  for  the 
last  few  years  they  are  again  so  high  that  people  are 
becoming  wild  about  them. 

Nearly  all  the  bearing  apple  orchards  in  New  York  were 
planted  between  1855  and  1878  ;  planting  then  practically 
stopped.  It  had  been  much  overdone.  In  the  early 
nineties  some  orchards  were  (;ut  down. 

In  one  township  in  Monroe  County,  New  York,  which 
is  in  the  center  of  the  apple  belt,  57  per  cent  of  the  apple 


TYPES   OF  FARMING 


85 


trees  were  planted  from  1859  to  1878;  only  11  per  cent 
were  planted  from  1879  to  1903 ;  while  21  per  cent  were 
planted  from  1904  to  1908.^ 

In  1908,  less  than  6  per  cent  of  the  apple  crop  of  this 
county  was  borne  on  trees  planted  since  1878.  From 
the  fact  that  there  were  so  few  trees  planted  between 


f*«fi 

J 

1 

not 

/ 

/ 

SCO 

/ 

^ 

1 

loo 
Zoo 

/ 

^ 

\ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

\ 

/ 

/ 

\ 

( 

^ 

^ 

\ 

^ 



/ 

Fig.  21. 


■Areas  of  apples  planted  in  different  years,  Parma  township, 
Monroe  county,  New  York. 


1878  and  1903,  we  must  expect  high  prices  in  most  years 
until  the  recent  plantings  affect  the  result.  Judging  by 
past  experience,  this  would  be  about  1920  to  1925.  In 
the  meantime,  indications  point  to  a  very  serious  over 
planting  just  as  occurred  in  the  seventies  (Fig.  21). 

There  is  no  shortage  of  apple  land.  Most  of  the  till- 
able land  in  the  North  Atlantic  States  is  well  adapted  to 
the  crop.     There  is  also  much  good  apple  land   in   the 


'  M.  C.  Burritt,  Thesis  in  Cornell  University  Library. 
York,  Cornell  Bulletins  226,  229,  202,  307. 


See  also  New 


86  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

other  states.  There  is  no  reason  why  an  average  of  fifty 
years  of  apples  should  pay  better  than  other  crops.  Ab- 
normally high  profits  are  the  peril  of  the  industry. 

The  fact  that  apples  are  high  in  price  is  no  indication 
that  they  vrill  be  high  when  the  proposed  new  orchard  comes 
into  hearing,  nor  are  low  profits  an  indication  that  profits 
will  be  low.  The  only  way  to  tell  whether  to  plant  apples 
is  to  study  the  comparative  numbers  of  old  and  young 
trees,  and  the  present  rate  of  planting. 

According  to  the  1910  census,  there  were  in  the  United 
States  151,000,000  apple  trees  of  bearing  age,  and 
66,000,000  not  of  bearing  age.  These  numbers  do 
not  appear  to  indicate  over  planting,  but  the  danger 
at  the  present  time  is  that  we  have  just  entered  upon  a 
period  of  planting,  and  it  appears  that  too  many  are  likely 
to  be  planted  before  the  young  trees  come  into  bearing. 
It  is  unfortunate  that  the  trees  not  of  bearing  age  are 
not  well  distributed.  Most  of  them  are  of  very  recent 
plantings. 

From  the  figures  thus  far  available,  it  appears  that  the 
periods  of  over-  and  under-production  of  apples  last  about 
twenty  to  twenty-five  years,  as  it  takes  this  time  to  get 
enough  trees  raised  to  bearing  age  to  cause  overproduc- 
tion, and  about  another  equal  period  of  little  planting 
before  prices  rise  high  enough  to  stimulate  another  plant- 
ing wave.  It  would  appear  to  be  the  part  of  wisdom  for 
a  farmer  to  start  planting  or  buying  orchards  about  the 
middle  of  the  low-price  period  when  every  one  is  dis- 
couraged, and  to  stop  planting  at  the  time  when  prices 
are  so  high  that  every  one  is  planting.  Some  farmers  do 
follow  this  practice.  The  farmer  who  planted  in  the 
eighties  has  already  been  rewarded. 

The  same  sort  of  cycle  occurs  with  all  farm  products. 


TYPES   OF  FARMING 


87 


With  potatoes,  high  prices  are  usually  followed  by  in- 
creased acreage,  but  if  the  increase  is  too  great,  the  farmers 
are  told  of  the  fact  by  the  prices  the  next  fall.  They  do 
not  go  on  for  ten  or  twenty  years,  as  in  the  case  of  apples, 
before  the  wisdom  of  the  acreage  is  put  to  test. 

Hogs  usually  rise  in  price  for  two  to  three  years  and 
then  drop  for  two  to  three  years.     A  very  abnormal  corn 


HOii  PWBIS 

/ 

■n 

9        90 

6  eo 

7  70 
6      60 
5      50 
■4       40 
3     -3d 

a    20 

1        10 

• 

/ 

> 

/ 

1 

/ 

^ 

\ 

/ 

N 

^ 

,-' 

/ 

' 

> 

s 

/ 

< 

___ 

s 

^ 

• 

~ 

\ 

/ 

'•• 

■■ 

\ 

V 

/ 

1 

^ 

_ 

^ 

/ 

.1 

JO 
}  K 

a 

0 

-  ^ 

3S 

« 

i 

ja 

I 

.a 

3a 

1 

>l 

< 

5a 

< 

a 
a 

3? 

3c 

3a 

0 

CI 

)  0 

3  a 

)- 

10 

0 
0 

a 

3a 

10 

3a 

0 

3a 

32 

?a 

32 

IC 
3ff 

10 

30 

30 

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15 

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5 

Fig.  22.  —  Solid  line  average  farm  prices  of  horses.  Dotted  line  average 
farm  prices  of  hogs.  Periods  of  over-  and  under-production  last  about 
10  years  for  horses  and  3  years  for  hogs. 

crop  shifts  the  hog  curve.  Since  1866  the  curve  has 
been  very  regular  until  1901,  when  the  very  short  corn 
crop  checked  hog  production,  so  that  the  drop  in  hog 
prices  did  not  come  until  two  years  later.  (See  Figure 
22.)  It  takes  about  two  to  three  years  of  low  prices  to 
check  hog  production  and  get  rid  of  the  extra  pigs  that 
are  coming  on,  and  about  two  to  three  years  to  get  pro- 
duction started  and  the  pigs  raised  to  marketable  age  so 
as  to  again  cause  overproduction.  Those  who  have 
Uved  in  the  corn-bolt  know  of  this  cycle  of  high  and  low 
prices.    If  a  farmer  in  the  corn-belt  changes  his  produc- 


88  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

tion  on  account  of  prices,  it  would  appear  to  be  good 
policy  to  raise  a  considerable  number  of  pigs  in  the 
second  or  third  year  of  low  prices,  and  to  be  cautious 
about  the  number  raised  in  the  second  and  third  years 
of  high  prices.  When  the  majority  are  disgusted  with 
the  business  is  a  good  time  to  buy ;  when  the  majority 
are  declaring  that  prices  will  never  again  be  low  is  a  good 
time  to  sell.  An  axiom  of  those  who  speculate  in  stocks 
and  bonds  expresses  the  same  idea,  —  to  sell  on  a  rising 
market  and  buy  on  a  falling  market. 

Prices  of  horses  show  the  same  cycle,  but  it  takes  a 
long  time  to  grow  enough  colts  to  overstock  the  market, 
apparently  eight  to  ten  years.  (See  Figure  22.)  Those 
who  were  first  to  start  raising  colts  after  the  ruinous 
prices  of  1896  have  made  a  good  profit.  When  the  price 
of  horses  drops  very  low,  it  would  appear  to  be  the  part 
of  wisdom  to  sell  all  the  old  horses  and  buy  young  ones 
that  will  still  be  living  when  prices  rise.  The  old  ones 
will  not  bring  much,  but  even  if  they  bring  nothing,  the 
prices  of  young  horses  are  so  low  as  to  make  this  a  wise 
practice.  If  one  is  in  a  region  adapted  to  horse  produc- 
tion, the  young  horses  should  be  mares  and  should  be 
bred.  The  fact  that  the  neighbors  are  raising  no  colts 
indicates  that  when  the  colts  raised  are  five  or  six  years 
old,  there  will  be  a  shortage  of  horses. 

The  fact  that  horses  are  high  is  no  indication  that  they 
will  he  high  when  a  young  colt  becomes  a  horse;  neither 
does  the  fact  that  horses  are  low  indicate  that  they  will  be 
low  when  the  colt  is  grown.  It  is  not  the  price  of  horses, 
but  the  number  of  colts  that  are  being  raised,  that  sug- 
gests the  probable  profits  from  colt  production. 

Products  that  cannot  be  kept  from  year  to  year  have 
extreme  variations  in  price.     This  results  in  considerable 


TYPES  OF  FARMING  89 

variation  in  acreage  planted.  Variations  in  the  price  of 
potatoes  from  twenty-five  cents  to  one  dollar  are  common. 
Cabbages  vary  from  $2  to  $60  per  ton.  Fresh  vegetables 
are  exceedingly  sensitive  to  any  overproduction.  Farmers 
who  are  growing  annual  crops  usually  find  it  best  to  grow 
about  the  same  area  year  after  year,  regardless  of  prices. 
The  attempt  to  adjust  the  acreage  to  conditions  is  too 
uncertain.  If  conditions  call  for  the  abandonment  of  a 
crop  in  a  community,  as  they  sometimes  do,  one  must 
distinguish  between  this  and  temporary  overproduction, 
—  a  distinction  that  is  sometimes  hard  to  make. 

Farmers  who  are  on  the  marginal  regions  for  the  growth 
of  a  product  should  be  very  careful  about  taking  up  the 
enterprise  when  prices  are  abnormally  high.  Horses  have 
to  be  very  high  to  make  colt  production  pay  where  feed 
is  very  higli.  When  horses  rise  to  an  unusual  price,  it 
may  be  that  it  would  pay  to  raise  them,  but  this  is  just 
before  the  drop  in  prices  is  likely  to  occur.  Instead  of 
starting  to  raise  colts  when  horses  are  cheap,  the  farmers 
of  the  Atlantic  States  usually  start  when  the  climax  in 
prices  has  been  reached,  and  get  a  good  supply  of  colts 
on  hand  just  as  low  prices  come. 

Farmers  who  live  in  regions  only  fairly  adapted  to 
apples,  or  hops,  or  oranges  are  not  likely  to  be  attracted 
by  these  crops  until  prices  are  abnormally  high;  that  is, 
just  before  a  drop  is  likely  to  occur. 

It  is  best  for  the  city,  as  well  as  for  the  farmer,  if  pro- 
duction can  be  so  adjusted  as  to  supply  the  market  at  a 
fair  price,  and  so  avoid  the  violent  shifts  in  price  that  so 
frequently  occur.  The  Crop  Reporter  is  of  much  use  in 
this  way.  Much  more  good  could  be  done  if  the  long- 
time enterprises  were  kept  track  of,  such  as  colt  produc- 
tion, apple  and  orange  planting,  etc.     Another  difficulty 


90  '  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

seems  to  be  that  agricultural  specialists,  who  are  dealing 
with  such  enterprises,  usually  seem  to  feel  that  it  is  their 
duty  to  encourage  everyone  to  go  to  producing  their 
specialty.  They  are  likely  to  try  to  discredit  the  pos- 
sibility of  overproduction  of  their  particular  specialty. 

Farmers  who  are  growing  such  crops  as  apples,  oranges, 
potatoes,  cabbages,  onions,  etc.,  find  it  difficult  to  plan 
for  their  farm  development.  It  is  unsafe  to  go  in  debt 
as  heavily  as  when  one  is  growing  more  stable  crops. 
These  are  the  products  that  in  some  years  give  high 
profits,  and  in  other  years,  heavy  losses.  Nearly  all 
magazine  articles  that  wish  to  show  how  rich  farmers  are 
getting,  use  some  of  these  speculative  crops  and  select 
years  when  profits  are  unusual.  The  farmer  who  depends 
entirely  on  such  products  must  always  be  prepared  to 
stand  heavy  losses.  Regions  that  depend  largely  on  such 
products  are  subject  to  successive  years  of  booms  and 
hard  times. 

For  these  reasons,  such  crops  are  usually  combined 
with  other  things.  In  new  regions,  one  crop  farming  may 
continue  for  a  time,  but  this  will  usually  change  to  a  mixed 
farming  as  the  country  grows  older.  A  common  saying  of 
the  apple  growers  of  the  North  Atlantic  States  is  that 
they  expect  to  live  from  the  farm  and  depend  on  the 
orchard  for  profits.  Such  a  farmer  may  have  ten  acres 
of  apples  on  a  100-acre  farm.  If  the  apples  fail,  the 
farm  will  usually  pay  expenses  and  keep  the  family,  so 
that  the  farmer  is  not  forced  to  live  a  year  with  a  large 
expense  and  no  income.  Most  of  the  potato  crop  is  grown 
in  the  same  way  on  general  farms.  The  truck  growers 
also  have  a  great  variety  of  crops. 

60.  Special  demands  of  certain  markets.  —  Occa- 
sionally there  are  special  demands  of  certain  markets  that 


TYPES   OF  FARMING  91 

affect  the  type  of  farming.  White  eggs  in  New  York  and 
Philadelphia  regularly  sell  for  about  3  to  15  cents  a  dozen 
above  the  price  of  brown  eggs.  In  Boston  the  brown 
eggs  bring  more.  For  this  reason,  nearly  all  farmers 
who  give  much  attention  to  poultry  and  who  ship  eggs  to 
New  York  keep  White  Leghorn  hens.  Some  other 
breeds  are  kept,  but  these  are  in  the  great  majority. 
This  involves  many  other  changes.  The  breeds  that  lay 
white  eggs  are  not  very  good  for  meat,  nor  are  they  good 
for  raising  chickens  without  incubators. 

The  Boston  market  prefers  green  asparagus ;  the  New 
York  market  prefers  it  white.  This  results  in  level  cul- 
ture for  Boston  and  ridged  culture  for  the  New  York 
market.  Such  illustrations  might  be  multiplied  indefi- 
nitely. They  all  have  more  or  less  effect  on  the  type  of 
farming. 

61.  Supplying  the  local  market.  —  Many  small  towns, 
particularly  in  the  grain  and  cotton  regions,  are  short  of 
vegetables,  fruit,  and  milk.  These  conditions  often  give 
a  chance  for  some  man,  who  has  little  capital  and  who  is 
willing  to  work  hard,  to  make  a  good  profit  by  following  a 
type  of  farming  entirely  different  from  the  general  type 
to  which  the  region  is  adapted.  Conditions  may  be  such 
that  a  profitable  fruit  or  vegetable  business  could  not 
possibly  develop  on  the  basis  of  shipment  from  the  region, 
yet  such  a  business  may  pay  very  well  until  the  local 
market  is  supplied.^ 

If  a  product  is  not  grown  locally,  its  wholesale  price 
must  be  that  of  the  nearest  general  market  plus  commis- 
sions and  freight.  But  if  produce  is  shipped  out  of  the 
region,  its  local  wholesale  price  will  be  that  of  the  general 
market,  less  freight  and  selling  charges.     Thus,  so  long  as 

I  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers'  Bulletin  325. 


92  FAliM  MANAGEMENT 

the  market  is  not  supplied  by  local  products,  there  is  in 
effect  a  protective  tariff  of  two  freight  charges  and  two 
selling  charges  in  favor  of  local  production.  One  of  the 
most  striking  cases  is  the  production  of  vegetables  in 
Alaska  —  not  because  of  favorable  conditions,  but  because 
of  high  prices. 

62.  Growing  products  for  home  use.  —  Much  the 
same  principle  applies  in  growing  products  for  use  on  the 
farm.  A  farmer  may  raise  a  hog  or  two  for  home  use 
when  it  would  not  pay  him  to  consider  raising  hogs  to 
sell.  If  he  buys  pork  from  the  meat  market,  he  will 
usually  have  to  pay  two  or  three  times  as  much  as  he 
gets  when  he  sells,  besides  having  to  haul  both  ways. 
For  this  reason,  it  generally  pays  a  farmer  to  keep  one  or 
two  cows,  50  hens,  a  hog  or  two,  and  raise  for  home  use 
such  fruits  and  vegetables  as  grow  well,  even  where  it 
will  not  pay  at  all  to  raise  any  of  these  to  sell.  In  addi- 
tion, the  health  and  happiness  of  the  family  are  likely  to 
be  much  better  if  these  products  are  raised. 

RELATION    OF   TYPE    OF   FARMING    TO    COMPETING    TYPES 

63.  The  best-paying  products  crowd  out  those  that 
pay  less.  —  It  is  not  sufficient  that  a  crop  pay ;  it  must 
pay  better  than  the  other  crops  with  which  it  competes. 
Corn  may  pay  near  cities,  but  if  it  cannot  compete  with 
potatoes,  sweet  corn,  and  other  tilled  crops  that  require 
work  at  the  same  time  of  year,  it  must  give  way. 

Many  efforts  have  been  made  to  introduce  root  crops 
for  stock  feeding.  But  these  crops  compete  with  corn  for 
labor.  For  a  given  amount  of  work,  corn  will  give  much 
more  stock  food  than  roots,  in  most  parts  of  the  United 
States.     This  is  not  true  in  Europe,  where  the  climate  is 


TYPES   OF  FARMING  98 

better  for  roots  and  not  so  good  for  corn  and  where  labor 
is  cheap. 

The  oat  crop  does  not  ,pay  very  well  in  the  corn-belt, 
but  it  fits  in  the  rotation.  A  farmer  can  raise  all  the  corn 
that  he  can  tend  to  and  at  the  same  time  raise  oats,  be- 
cause the  work  does  not  interfere.  It  is  not  necessary 
that  oats  pay  as  well  as  corn ;  they  do  not  compete  with 
corn  except  for  land. 

In  some  sections  where  dairying  pays  better  than  any 
other  kind  of  live-stock,  the  profits  from  raising  crops 
are  so  high  that  farmers  would  prefer  cows  for  the 
winter,  but  because  cows  interfere  with  crop  growing  in 
the  summer,  they  accept  a  less  profitable  kind  of  live- 
stock. Under  some  conditions  the  extra  crops  that  can 
be  raised  more  than  offset  the  difference  in  profits  on 
stock.  A  further  discussion  of  this  question  is  given  on 
page  119. 

No  matter  how  profitable  a  product  is,  it  must  give 
way  to  a  competing  product  that  pays  better.  Sometimes 
a  product  that  does  not  pay  well  must  continue  to  be 
raised,  because  there  is  nothing  better. 

RELATION  OF  LAND  VALUES  TO  TYPE  OF  FARMING 

64.    Land   values   affect    the   type    of  farming.  —  The 

range  business  has  been  driven  farther  and  farther  west 
by  the  increasing  land  values.  It  cannot  continue  on 
land  tluit  is  adapted  to  croj)  production.  Systems  of 
farming  that  paid  in  Iowa  when  the  land  was  worth  $50 
may  not  pay  now,  when  much  of  the  land  is  worth  $150. 
Tliere  is  a  constant  adjustment  to  land  values,  l)ut  this 
has  less  effect  on  the  type  of  farming  than  many  of  the 
other  factors.     A  change  in  land  values  of  $100  per  acre 


94 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


represents  an  annual  cost  of  about  $5  per  year.  A  change 
of  10  cents  per  bushel  in  price  of  a  50-bushel  yield  of  corn 
will  offset  this. 


RELATION  OF  CAPITAL  TO  TYPE  OF  FARMING 

65.  Adjustment  of  type  of  farming  to  capital.  —  Some 
types  of  farming  call  for  much  larger  capital  than  others ; 
some  require  that  the  money  be  invested  for  a  long  time ; 
others  bring  quick  returns. 

In  Table  1 7  is  shown  how  the  farmers  in  the  same  region  in 
New  York  have  adjusted  their  business  to  the  amount  of 
capital.  The  farmers  with  little  capital  raise  more  crops 
for  sale  and   less  animal  products.     Those  with   small 

Table  17.  —  Relation  of  Capital  to  Type  of  Farming.     578 
Farms  in  Livingston  County,  New  York 


Average  Capital 

Per  Cent  of  Receipts 
FROM  Crops 

Per  Cent  op  Receipts 

FROM  Animals  and 

their  Products 

$5,000  or  less    .     . 

$5,001-$7,500  .     . 

$7,501-$10,000  . 
$10,001-$15,000  . 
$15,001-$20,000  . 
Over  $20,000      .     . 

73% 

68 

65 

65 

55 

43 

27% 

32 

35 

35 

45 

57 

capital  obtain  only  27  per  cent  of  their  receipts  from 
animals ;  those  with  larger  capital  obtain  57  per  cent  from 
animals.  With  any  given  farm,  the  animals  represent 
added  capital.  As  much  or  more  machinery  and  horses 
are  required  to  run  the  farm  with  live-stock,  and,  in  addi- 
tion, the  investment  in  stock,  feed,  and  extra  labor  must 
be  considered. 


TYPES   OF  FARMING 


95 


66.  Relation  of  type  of  farming  to  profits  with  vary- 
ing capital.  —  The  same  farms  give  a  good  chance  to 
study  the  relation  of  the  amount  of  Uve-stock  to  profits 
with  different  amounts  of  capital.  Table  18  shows  that 
in  this  neighborhood  the  farmers  who  have  less  than 
$5000  capital  make  the  largest  profits  if  they  derive 
about  four-fifths  of  their  money  from  cash  crops.  But  of 
those  who  have  over  $15,000  capital,  the  ones  who  get 
about  one-third  of  their  money  from  cash  crops  make 
most.  On  the  same  farm,  the  type  of  farming  that  is 
best  with  small  capital  may  not  be  best  when  the  money 
increases.  Farmers  know  this  and  increase  both  the 
amount  and  quality  of  the  live-stock  as  they  get  more 
money. 

Table  18.  —  Systems  of  Farming  with  Different  Amounts 
OP  Capital  Related  to  Labor  Incomes.  578  Farms 
Northern  Livingston  County,  New  York 


Per  Cent  of  Receipts 

Labor  Incomes  on  Farms  with  Capital  as 
Designated 

FROM  CROpa 

$5000  or  less 

$5001  to 
$10,000 

$10,001  to 
$15,000 

Over  $15,000 

20%  or  less   .     .     . 
21%-40%      .     .     . 
41%-70%      .     .     . 
71%-90%.     .     .     . 
Over  90%     .     .     . 

$253 
181 
256 
424 
231 

$227 
280 
555 
436 
320 

$554 
587 
707 
834 
714 

$1000 

1399 

1038 

1194 

473 

67.  Period  of  investment.  —  Perhaps  the  longest  in- 
vestment is  in  forest  trees.  Trees  may  pay  a  good  rate 
of  interest,  but  the  money  is  invested  from  20  to  100 
years.  Evidently  one  who  is  very  short  of  capital  will 
not  want  to   invest  much   money  or  time  in  planting 


9()  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

forest  troths,  even  though  they  may  be  a  very  good  thing 
for  persons  who  can  spare  the  investment. 

In  the  Eastern  States,  apple  trees  pay  very  well,  but 
very  little  return  should  ordinarily  be  counted  on  for  the 
first  fifteen  to  twenty  years.  The  best  yields  are  secured 
at  about  fifty  years.  The  trees  often  continue  to  pay 
until  they  are  one  hundred  years  old.^  Certainly  one 
who  does  not  have  enough  money  to  run  his  farm  should 
go  slowly  in  planting  apple  onthards. 

Live-stock  requires  nuich  more  capital  than  crop  farm- 
ing. Pure-bnnl  live-stock  requires  much  more  capital 
than  grade  stock.  Extra  good  pure-bred  stock  requires 
still  mon;  capital.  It  is  usually  unwise  for  the  farmer  with 
little  money  to  l)uy  much  pure-bred  stock,  and  it  may  be 
just  as  unwise  for  the  same  man  to  keep  anything  but 
pure-breds  when  he  gets  more  money. 

All  new  or  experimental  things  require  more  capital 
than  estabhshed  enterprises,  because  of  the  risk.  If  one 
is  short  of  money,  he  should  be  slow  to  take  up  such 
things. 

Types  of  farming  that  depend  on  extensive  advertising 
require  both  time  and  capital  before  they  become  estab- 
lished. 

RELATION  OF  LABOR  TO  TYPE  OF  FARMING 

68.    The    type    of    farming    must   fit    the    laborer.  — 

Many  persons  in  the  United  States  are  prevented  from 
going  into  the  dairy  business  because  owners,  as  well  as 
hired-men,  dislike  to  milk.  Sugar  beets  depend  on  having 
a  supply  of  cheap  labor  for  doing  the  weeding  and  thin- 
ning. The  cotton  crop  is  well  adapted  to  cheap  labor. 
The  supply  of  pickers  limits  the  area  that  can  be  grown. 

1  New  York,  CorneU  Bulletins  226,  229,  262,  307. 


TYPES   OF  FARMING  97 

If  a  successful  mechanical  picker  should  come  into  use, 
it  would  revolutionize  agriculture  in  the  South.  Cotton 
responds  well  to  good  care,  but  is  a  crop  that  will  produce 
something  of  a  yield  even  if  neglected.  This  makes  it  a 
good  crDp  for  ignorant  labor.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
cheap  labor  that  goes  with  the  cotton  crop  tends  to 
prevent  the  introduction  of  a  more  diversified  farming. 
Profitable  production  of  grain  crops  in  America  calls  for 
the  use  of  machinery  and  two  to  five  horse  or  mule  teams. 
This  requires  efficient  labor.  Improved  live-stock  that 
goes  with  diversified  farming  also  requires  intelligent 
care.  If  the  negro  could  be  removed  from  any  Southern 
state,  it  is  probable  that  land  values  would  double  in  a 
few  years,  because  great  numbers  of  Northern  farmers, 
who  are  now  going  to  Canada,  would  go  South.  They 
would  establish  diversified  farms,  with  cotton  as  the  most 
important  cash  crop. 


EFFECTS    OF    WEEDS,    INSECTS,    AND    DISEASES    ON    THE 
TYPE    OF    FARMING 

69.  Pests  may  limit  the  type  of  farming.  —  There  are 
hundreds  of  instances  of  an  entire  change  in  the  system  of 
farming  because  of  pests. 

One  of  the  things  that  has  held  back  the  development 
of  cattle  raising  and  dairying  in  the  South  is  Texas  fever. 
This  has  modified  the  entire  system  of  farming.  Now 
the  cotton-boll  weevil  promises  to  bring  about  diversified 
farming.  A  few  years  ago,  the  San  Jose  scale  practically 
exterminated  the  peach  industry  in  Delaware,  Maryland, 
and  New  Jersey.  In  many  cases  land  values  were  cut 
in  half.  Now  farmers  an;  learning  how  to  control  the 
scale,   and  the  peaches  and  land  values  are  returning. 


98  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

The  corn  root  worm  is  forcing  crop  rotation  and  conse- 
quent changes  in  farming  in  the  corn-belt. 


RELATION    OF   THE   TYPE    OF   FARMING   TO    THAT   OF   THE 
NEIGHBORS 

70.  The  value  of  community  experience.  —  Under 
most  conditions  it  is  of  very  great  importance  to  be  in 
the  same  type  of  farming  as  the  community.  There  is 
so  much  to  learn  about  farming  in  any  community  that 
one  man  cannot  hope  to  learn  it  alone.  The  experience 
of  the  community  is  of  the  utmost  value  to  ev=>ry  farmer. 
Few  farmers  realize  how  much  they  owe  to  their  neigh- 
bors. Different  men  try  out  new  varieties  of  crops,  new 
machines,  different  breeds  of  animals,  different  methods 
of  raising  crops,  different  kinds  of  building  construction, 
different  ways  of  saving  labor.  Each  man  gets  the  benefit 
of  the  experiences  of  all ;  if  a  man  is  following  e  type  of 
farming  different  from  his  neighbors,  he  cannot  hope  to 
try  all  these  things.  He  is  not  likely  to  progress  very 
rapidly.  Sometimes  he  may  visit  other  similar  regions  to 
get  the  experience  of  other  men,  but  then  it  may  not  apply 
on  his  farm. 

71.  Community  labor  supply.  —  If  one  is  following  a 
different  kind  of  farming  from  his  neighbors,  he  will 
always  have  difficulty  in  securing  well-trained  help. 

The  man  who  has  the  only  apple  orchard  in  a  region 
will  have  to  train  his  men  for  each  operation  The  men 
will  not  know  how  to  plow  the  orchard.  They  will  be 
thinking  of  the  plowing  more  than  of  the  trees,  and  may 
injure  the  trees.  They  will  not  know  how  to  prune, 
take  out  borers,  spray,  pick,  or  pack  apples.  But  if  the 
entire  community  is  in  the  apple  business,  most  of  the 


TYPES   OF  FARMING  99 

hired-men  will  know  considerable  about  the  different 
kinds  of  work.  They  will  also  know  what  a  day's  work 
is,  as  there  will  be  other  farms  with  which  to  compare. 
This  usually  results  in  faster,  as  well  as  better,  work.  It 
will  also  be  easier  to  change  work  with  neighbors.  The 
same  principle  applies  to  all  kinds  of  farming. 

72.  Advertising  value  of  the  neighborhood.  —  The 
region  that  produces  hogs,  apples,  hay,  hops,  or  any  other 
product  attracts  the  corresponding  buyers.  The  writer 
has  seen  apples  sell  in  an  apple  section  for  $3  per  barrel 
when  equally  good  apples  in  another  county  could  not 
be  sold  for  more  than  S2.  The  buyers  do  not  care  to 
go  to  a  region  where  only  a  little  of  the  product  is  to 
be  secured.  They  are  also  afraid  of  the  product  from 
such  a  region,  because  while  a  single  farmer  may  have  a 
good  product,  the  average  of  the  region  is  poor.  The 
same  fact  tends  to  lower  the  price  if  the  apples  are  shipped 
to  a  city.  If  they  come  from  a  region  that  is  noted  for 
its  product,  the  price  is  almost  certain  to  be  better  than 
for  the  same  quality  from  a  less  known  section.  It  is  also 
difficult  to  take  advantage  of  carload  rates.  All  the 
facilities  for  shipment  are  better  provided  if  there  is  a 
community  business. 

Pure-bred  stock  sells  for  most  in  regions  where  the 
breed  is  best  developed.  Syracuse,  New  York,  is  a  great 
Holstein  cattle  center.  Many  farmers,  who  live  a  hun- 
dred miles  from  this  center  and  who  have  no  neighbors 
in  the  business,  sell  stock  for  much  less  than  it  would  bring 
in  the  Holstein  community.  Some  dealers  who  know  this 
send  out  buyers  to  pick  up  the  scattering  animals  at 
bargain  prices,  ship  them  to  the  developed  community, 
and  sell  at  a  good  profit.  There  is  another  important 
Holstein  center  in  Wisconsin.     Percheron  horses  are  most 


100  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

developed  in  the  Central  West.  A  single  breeder  far  from 
this  region  often  finds  it  difficult  to  secure  good  prices. 
His  neighbors  do  not  know  what  the  animals  are  worth, 
as  they  have  no  basis  for  comparison.  The  owner  him- 
self finds  it  very  difficult  to  keep  up  on  prices.  The 
neighbors  are  often  the  best  market  if  one  has  the  right 
breed.  Manufacturers  realize  the  advertising  value  of 
the  community,  so  that  we  have  developed  shoe  centers, 
furniture  centers,  and  clothing  centers.  Even  within  a 
large  city,  the  similar  industries  tend  to  group  themselves. 
Buyers  are  then  attracted  to  the  center  in  a  way  that  no 
one  firm  could  attract  them.  The  skilled  labor  is  also 
easier  to  secure. 

Unless  there  is  some  definite  reason  for  doing  otherwise, 
one  should  follow  the  same  general  type  of  farming  as 
his  neighbors  and  keep  the  same  breeds  of  live-stock. 

Sometimes  one  may  go  in  just  the  opposite  direction 
so  as  to  supply  a  local  need,  as  has  been  previously  men- 
tioned, such  as  growing  vegetables  for  local  use  in  a  grain 
and  stock  countr3\ 

73.  Difficulty  of  changing  the  type.  —  Sometimes  a 
type  of  farming  that  is  not  best  for  the  region  becomes 
established.  Frequently  a  change  in  conditions  makes  a 
change  in  the  farming  desirable.  The  wrong  type  may 
continue  for  years,  because  it  is  so  hard  to  make  the 
change.  The  equipment,  the  farm  buildings,  city  ware- 
houses, the  markets,  the  knowledge  of  the  people,  may 
all  need  to  be  changed.  This  makes  the  problem  a  very 
difficult  one,  even  if  there  were  no  conservatism  to  be 
considered.  It  has  been  aptly  said  that  no  one  but  the 
sheriff  can  change  a  type  of  farming. 

Tlie  opening  of  the  grain  country  of  the  Central  West 
required  a  complete  readjustment  of  Eastern  agriculture, 


TYPES   OF  FARMING  101 

but  it  took  a  generation  to  complete  the  change,  and  even 
yet  some  farmers  are  trying  to  farm  as  if  Illinois  had  not 
been  settled,  and  occasionally  an  experiment  station  still 
attempts  to  foster  the  exterminated  types  of  farming. 

The  introduction  of  the  hard  winter  wheats  called  for  a 
complete  readjustment  of  agriculture  in  parts  of  Kansas 
and  Nebraska,  but  it  took  about  twenty  years  to  complete 
the  change. 

DIFFICULTY    OF    DETERMINING   THE    BEST   TYPE 

74.  Experience  the  only  sure  way  to  tell  the  best 
type.  —  From  all  of  the  preceding  discussions,  it  will  be 
seen  that  there  are  so  many  factors  involved  that  no  one 
can  hope  to  give  proper  consideration  to  all  the  more  or 
less  conflicting  forces  and  tell  the  best  type  for  the  region, 
without  trying  it.  Sometimes  a  type  pays  so  well  or  so 
poorly  as  to  leave  no  question  for  debate.  But  usually 
it  is  the  varying  interrelations  of  all  these  and  other  factors 
that  determine  the  most  profitable  type,  and,  in  most 
regions,  there  are  several  or  many  types  that  compete 
with  each  other  and  that  one  must  decide  between.  Since 
most  of  the  factors  are  subject  to  frequent  change,  the 
type  of  farming  that  was  formerly  best  may  at  any  time 
cease  to  be  best. 

The  successful  farmer  must,  therefore,  ever  be  on  the 
alert  to  see  whether  he  is  following  the  best  type  of  farm- 
ing. But  there  are  so  many  factors  involved  that  it  is 
very  difficult  to  tell  what  is  best  without  trying  it.  New 
things  are  always  being  tried.  Occasionally,  something 
is  found  that  succeeds  for  a  series  of  years,  and  the  neigh- 
bors will  then  take  it  up.  It  is  so  difficult  to  balance  all 
these  factors  that  farmers  are  justly  very  slow  to  change 


102  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

to  untried  things.  They  reahze  that  no  scientist  can 
consider  all  these  factors.  Only  experience  can  do  that. 
Scientists  showed  that  sugar  beets  could  be  grown  in 
New  York,  and  two  big  factories  were  built.  They  are 
gone  now.  The  scientist  forgot  to  consider  which  would 
pay  better,  the  sugar  beet  or  other  crops  of  the  region  with 
which  beets  compete.  So  near  large  centers  of  popula- 
tion, the  labor  that  might  be  used  to  grow  sugar  beets  is 
more  profitably  employed  in  growing  such  crops  as  apples, 
potatoes,  and  cabbages.  Scientists  have  urged  these 
same  farmers  not  to  sell  hay,  but  they  go  on  selling  it. 
The  farmer  of  Nebraska  and  Iowa  is  told  to  put  all  of 
his  corn  in  the  silo  or  cut  it  up  so  as  to  save  the  stalks, 
but  there  is  a  labor  question  involved,  and  most  of  the 
corn  continues  to  be  husked  from  the  standing  stalks  in 
the  field. 

One  should  always  follow  the  type  of  farming  of  the 
region  until  he  is  very  sure  that  something  else  will  pay 
better.  Even  then,  he  should  go  slowly,  as  he  is  likely  to 
find  that  he  overlooked  something.  A  progressive  con- 
servatism is  most  likely  to  bring  success. 

THE    PERSONAL    FACTOR 

75.  Personal  tastes  a  minor  factor.  —  The  personal 
likes  and  dislikes  of  the  farmer  are  often  thought  of  as 
the  most  important  consideration,  but  they  are  usually 
a  minor  factor  in  determining  the  type  of  farming.  If  a 
type  of  farming  pays  well,  it  is  usually  easy  to  learn  to 
like  it.  It  is  interesting  to  observe  the  supposed  likes  of 
people.  In  good  dairy  sections  nearly  every  farm  boy 
learns  to  like  cows.  In  some  sections  where  hogs  are  the 
most  profitable  animal,  nearly  every  one  likes  hogs.    Farm- 


TYPES   OF  FARMING  103 

ers  usually  attribute  these  likes  to  some  mysterious  psy- 
chological influence.  To  one  who  has  studied  agriculture 
in  many  regions,  it  is  evident  that  in  most  cases  these 
mysterious  likes  and  dislikes  are  merely  the  result  of  com- 
parative profits  with  different  types  of  farming. 

References 

Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  L.  H.  Bailey,  Vol.  1,  pp.  29- 
132. 

Twelfth  Census,  Vol.  V,  Part  I,  pp.  liii-lix  and  pp.  206-229. 

How  to  Choose  a  Farm,  T.  F.  Hunt,  pp.  129-370. 

Farm  Management,  F.  W.  Card,  pp.  70-90. 

Types  of  Farming  in  the  United  States,  W.  J.  Spillman,  U.  S. 
Dept.  Agr.,  Yearbook,  1908,  pp.  351-366. 

Agricultural  Graphics,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bureau  of  Statistics, 
Bulletin  78. 

Centers  of  Agricultural  Production  in  Ohio,  Ohio  Circular  100. 

An  Agricultural  Survey  of  Tompkins  County,  New  York.  New 
York,  Cornell  Bulletin  295. 

An  Agricultural  Survey  of  Four  Townships  in  Southern  New 
Hampshire.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bureau  Plant  Industry,  Cir- 
cular 75. 


CHAPTER  3 
DIVERSIFIED    AND    SPECIALIZED    FARMING 

Much  of  the  discussion  of  this  subject  is  confused  be- 
cause of  lack  of  clearness  in  definition.  It  is  usually  as- 
sumed that  diversified  farming  means  a  little  of  everything 
and  not  much  of  anything.  It  follows  at  once  that  such 
farming  cannot  pay  very  well,  because  there  is  not  enough 
of  it.  It  is  likewise  frequently  assumed  that  specialized 
farming  means  a  very  large  amount  of  one  or  two  things. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  size  of  the  business  may  be  large 
or  small  in  either  case.  In  making  comparisons,  we  should 
compare  the  large  diversified  enterprises  with  large  special- 
ized enterprises  and  small  businesses  with  small  businesses. 

Another  point  that  confuses  the  subject  is  that  such  a 
word  as  dairying  may  mean  many  things.  It  may  mean 
producing  no  important  product  except  milk  or  butter 
for  sale  at  wholesale  prices.  Or  it  may  mean  combining 
one  of  these  with  pure-bred  cattle,  in  which  case  there 
arc  two  important  products  for  sale.  Or  retailing  milk 
may  be  combined  with  pure-bred  cattle.  In  this  case, 
the  farmer  really  has  three  enterprises ;  producing  milk, 
producing  pure-bred  cattle,  and  retailing  milk.  Such  a 
business  should  probably  })e  called  specialized,  but  it  has 
the  characteristics  of  a  diversified  business,  while  the  pro- 
duction of  wholesale  milk  from  grade  cows  has  the  char- 
acteristics of  a  highly  specialized  business. 

The  subject  is  further  confused  by  the  use  of  such  words 
as  fruit,  grain,  truck,  and  live-stock  as  if  they  represented 

104 


DIVERSIFIED  AND   SPECIALIZED    FARMING     105 

a  single  product.  A  farmer  may  grow  man}^  kinds  of  fruit 
and  so  have  a  diversified  farm.  He  may  grow  nothing 
but  grain  crops  and  yet  have  a  diversified  farm. 

If  a  farmer's  only  important  sale  is  potatoes,  his  farm 
is  specialized,  whether  he  grows  five  acres  or  fifty.  Another 
farmer  ma}^  grow  just  as  many  potatoes,  run  a  dairy,  and 
raise  hay  to  sell,  and  he  will  have  a  diversified  farm. 

General  farming  usually  means  that  one  grows  the  usual 
animals  and  field  crops  of  the  region.  It  is  one  kind  of 
diversified  farming.  It  is  sometimes  wrongly  used  to 
mean  that  nothing  much  is  being  done. 

A  farmer  who  sells  only  one  important  product  has  a 
highly  specialized  farm.  If  he  sells  several  important 
products,  his  farm  is  diversified.  In  either  case  he  may 
sell  a  number  of  relatively  unimportant  items. 

NUMBER  OF  SPECIALIZED  FARMS 

76.    Most   farms  have  several   important   products.  — 

There  are  very  few  highly  specialized  farms,  —  not  nearly 
so  many  as  is  commonly  supposed.  If  we  except  the 
cotton  farms,  probably  over  95  per  cent  of  the  other  farms 
in  the  United  States  derive  most  of  their  income  from  a 
combination  of  crops  and  animals,  —  general  farming. 
The  census  results  given  in  Table  19  are  suggestive.  The 
farms  classified  as  live-stock,  hay,  and  grain,  are  mostly 
general  farms.  Either  of  these  terms  includes  many  things. 
The  farms  classified  as  miscellaneous  did  not  derive  as 
much  as  40  per  cent  of  their  income  from  any  one  of  the 
groups  of  products  listed.  These  classes  make  up  69  per 
cent  of  all  farms. 

A  farm  that  gets  only  40  per  cent  of  its  income  from  its 
chief  source  cannot  be  said  to  be  specialized.     If  the 


106 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


standard  were  placed  at  75  per  cent  of  the  income  from 
one  of  the  classes  of  products,  nearly  all  the  farms  would 
have  been  miscellaneous.  If,  in  addition,  the  hay  and 
grain  farms  and  other  collective  classes  were  divided  into 
corn,  hay,  wheat,  etc.,  there  would  have  been  practically 
no  farms  left  to  call  specialized.  With  the  classification 
given,  we  find  that  when  all  the  fruits  are  combined,  the 
fruit  farms  constitute  only  1.4  per  cent  of  the  total  farms. 
Only  6  per  cent  of  the  farms  derived  as  much  as  40  per  cent 
of  their  income  from  the  dairy.  The  farms  that  derived 
40  per  cent  from  vegetables,  tobacco,  fruits,  sugar,  flowers 
and  plants,  or  nursery  products,  and  rice,  altogether  made 
up  only  6  per  cent  of  the  total  farms. 

Table  19. —  Classification  of  Farms  in  the  United  States 
IN  1899  BY  Principal  Source  of  Income.  At  Least  40 
Per  Cent  of  the  Income  was  Derived  from  the  Given 
Source  i 


Chief  Source  of  Income 


Live-stock 

Hay  and  grain 

Cotton 

Dairy  produce 

Vegetables 

Tobacco 

Fruits 

Sugar    

Flowers  and  plants      .... 

Rice 

Nursery  products 

Miscellaneous,  no  product  equal 
to  40  per  cent 


Number  of 
Farms 


1,564,515 

1,319,854 

1,071,545 

357,544 

155,788 

106,250 

82,060 

7,174 

6,159 

5,217 

2,029 

1,059,237 


5,737,372 


Per  Cent  of  All 
Farms 


27 
23 
19 

6 

3 

2 

1 

0.1 

0.1 

0.1 

0.04 

19 


'  Twelfth  Census  of  the  United  States,  1900,  Vol.  V,  Part  I,  p.  liii. 
Alaska  and  Hawaii  omitted. 


DIVERSIFIED  AND   SPECIALIZED   FARMING     107 


COMPARATIVE    MERITS    OF    SPECIALIZED    AND    DIVERSIFIED 

FARMING 

77.  Merits  of  each  type.  — -  There  are  several  ways  in 
which  special  farming  has  the  advantage.  One  may 
become  more  skilled  if  he  has  bat  one  or  two  things  to 
study.  If  he  is  very  short  of  capital,  he  may  have  con- 
siderable of  one  thing  when  the  same  capital  does  not  allow 
a  fair  amount  of  several  things.  With  any  given  area, 
the  fields  may  be  larger  and  so  greatly  facilitate  labor. 
Farmers  who  follow  specialized  farming  find  it  easier  to 
get  away  for  a  vacation,but  this  is  only  another  way  of  say- 
ing that  such  farming  does  not  provide  a  full  year's  work. 

There  are  several  considerations  that  so  far  outweigh 
all  others  that  the  vast  majority  of  farmers  find  that  it 
pays  better  to  have  several  important  products.  Diversi- 
fied farming  provides  for  crop  rotation.  It  usually  pro- 
vides against  total  failure.  It  usually  distributes  the 
income  over  the  year  and  provides  work  for  men,  horses, 
and  machinery  for  a  large  proportion  of  the  time. 

Persons  who  have  never  farmed  fail  to  appreciate  the 
importance  of  these  considerations.  Very  naturally,  they 
compare  farming  with  city  v/ork,  but  such  a  comparison 
is  very  misleading.  They  are  usually  attracted  by  the 
idea  of  extreme  specialization  and  are  likely  to  prefer  some 
fad  rather  than  a  staple  product.  The  uncommon  things 
are  exploited  in  publications  for  the  same  reason  that 
newspapers  tell  of  the  unusual  things. 

78.  Diversified  farming  and  crop  rotation.  —  Nearly 
all  kinds  of  farming  require  rotation  of  crops,  if  yields 
are  to  be  maintained.  A  crop  may  occupy  the  land  only 
one  year,  or  several  years  as  with  alfalfa  and  nursery  stock, 
or  many  years  as  with  orchards,  but  in  practically  every 


108  FAEM  MANAGEMENT 

case  rotation  is  desirable.     This  usually  involves  diversi- 
fied farming. 

79.  Diversified  farming  lessens  the  risk  of  total 
failure.  —  The  farmer  is  so  dependent  on  weather,  pests, 

•  and  prices  that  he  hesitates  to  take  the  chance  of  total 
failure  that  he  must  assume  if  he  has  only  one  product  to 
sell.  Even  if  this  product  is  an  animal,  the  risk  is  very 
great,  because  if  crops  fail,  feed  must  be  purchased  and 
often  at  prices  that  make  the  animals  unprofitable.  If  there 
are  several  important  crops,  they  are  not  likely  to  all  fail 
in  the  same  year.  These  risks  are  not  so  great  when 
farming  by  irrigation,  but  even  then  the  risk  is  great.  A 
farmer  must  pay  his  living  expenses,  labor,  interest,  taxes, 
and  farm  running  expenses.  A  failure  when  he  has  but 
one  cash  product  is  a  serious  matter,  as  he  will  have  to 
carry  all  these  expenses  for  another  year. 

80.  Diversified  farming  may  distribute  the  income 
throughout  the  year.  —  If  the  year's  income  is  all  re- 
ceived at  one  time,  it  is  difficult  to  make  the  money  last 
through  the  year,  even  when  the  same  amount  of  money 
coming  at  convenient  intervals  might  provide  very  well. 
Most  kinds  of  diversified  farming  are  better  than  special 
farming  in  this  respect. 

81.  Diversified  farming  may  distribute  the  labor 
throughout  the  year.  —  The  most  important  considera- 
tion of  all  and  the  one  that  controls  the  situation  in  nearly 
every  case  is  the  problem  of  keeping  men,  horses,  and 
machinery  busy  throughout  the  year.  This  subject  is  so 
important  that  an  extended  discussion  of  the  problem  will 
be  given.  Some  types  of  special  farming  are  satisfactory 
in  this  respect,  but  they  are  so  very  rare  that  only  here 
and  there  do  we  find  a  profitable  farm  that  sells  only  one 
important  product. 


DIVERSIFIED  AND   SPECIALIZED  FARMING     109 

82.  Cases  in  which   specialized   farming  may   pay.  — 

The  most  important  cases  when  very  speciaUzed  farming 
may  continue  to  pay  are  when  some  one  product  provides 
for  full  employment  of  men,  horses,  and  equipment,  when 
some  one  product  is  extremely  profitable,  and  when  extra 
labor  is  very  easy  to  secure.  Sometimes  there  is  a  shortage 
of  land  adapted  to  an  enterprise,  so  that  there  is,  in  effect, 
a  corner  on  the  product.  Farmers  may  then  make  more 
with  a  partial  year's  work  than  with  a  full  year's  work 
with  usual  products.  Such  cases  as  this  are  very  rare 
indeed  and  usually  last  for  only  a  short  time  until  some 
other  region  finds  that  it  can  grow  the  high-priced  product. 
There  are  some  instances  when  it  is  easy  to  get  an  abun- 
dant supply  of  labor  at  the  particular  season  when  it  is 
required.  Occasionally  a  farmer  combines  some  manu- 
facturing enterprise  with  farming. 

SEASONAL    DISTRIBUTION    OF   LABOR 

83.  Providing  a  full  year's  work.  —  No  matter  how 
profitable  a  product  is,  there  is  a  limit  to  the  amount  that 
can  be  raised  with  a  given  amount  of  labor.  Usually 
only  a  small  fraction  of  the  year  can  be  devoted  to  the 
product.  The  farmer's  problem  is  a  very  complicated 
one.  It  is  not  so  easy  as  picking  the  most  profitable  en- 
terprises. He  must  determine  the  combination  that  will 
give  the  greatest  returns  for  the  year's  work.  No  one 
should  expect  to  make  a  very  large  profit  from  farming, 
unless  his  business  provides  a  full  year's  work.^  It  is 
even  more  important  and  more  difficult  to  provide  a  full 
year's  work  for  horses  than  for  men. 

The  time  at  which  crops  require  work  varies  with  the 

1  See  also  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Yearbook,  1911,  pp.  269-284. 


110  FARM  MAJfAGEMENT 

latitude.  The  discussion  of  details  here  given  applies  to 
latitude  about  39°  to  43°.  Similar  figures  need  to  be 
worked  out  for  each  region.  Farmers  usually  know  what 
crops  fit  together  in  their  region. 

84.    Distribution  of  labor  on  alfalfa.  —  Alfalfa  is  a  very 
profitable  forage  crop  in  regions  in  which  it  does  well, 


H0UR5 
ZOO 

ICX) 


I 


J<^n    Feb    /A<\R    ApR    r\AY    J«JneJulY     Au<^    bepT    Oct     Nov      Dec. 

Fig.  23.  —  Distribution  of  man  labor  on  11  acres  of  alfalfa.    White  is 
manuring.    Black  is  cutting  3  times  and  making  hay. 

but  it  interferes  with  many  other  crops.  In  the  winter 
wheat  regions  of  Kansas  and  Nebraska,  it  conflicts  seriously 
with  wheat  and  corn.  These  three  are  the  most  profitable 
crops  in  most  parts  of  this  region.     The  first  crop  of  alfalfa. 

HOURS 

8.00 


I 


Jtxn     Feb     t^AV.    ApR     Aay     Juno  July     Au^     5ept    Oct      Nov.     Deo 

Fig.  24.  —  Distribution  of  horse  labor  on  11  acres  of  alfalfa.    White  is 
manuring.     Black  is  making  hay. 

which  is  the  heaviest  and  hardest  to  cure,  the  rush  of 
corn  cultivation,  and  wheat  harvest  all  come  within  three 
or  four  weeks.  Again,  alfalfa  haying  interferes  with 
plowing  for  wheat  and  the  third  crop  with  wheat  planting. 


DIVERSIFIED  AND   SPECIALIZED  FARMING     111 


This  is  an  exceedingly  serious  conflict  and  strikingly 
affects  the  agriculture  of  the  region.  At  the  present  time, 
wheat  pays  best  for  the  labor  involved,  hence  corn  and 

HOURS 
gOQ. 


}(X) 


MA 


Jad.  feb.  A«\R  ApR, /^<\Y  June  July  Aoc^^  Sept  Oct    Nov.    Deo. 

Fig.  25.  —  Distribution  of  man  labor  on  14  acres  of  silage  corn.     Black  is 
work  fixed  as  to  time.     White  is  plowing. 

alfalfa  are  limited,  and  this  in  turn  limits  the  live-stock. 
In  the  corn-belt,  corn  pays  better  than  alfalfa.     This 

HOURS 
400 


5  00 


Zoo 


100 


Jao.    Feb.    /Aar.    Afn    MAy    June   Joly     Ao^.    Sept.   Oct.     Woy      Pec. 

Fig.  26.  —  Distribution  of  horse  labor  on  14  acres  of  silage  corn.    Black 
is  work  fixed  as  to  time.     White  is  plowing. 

checks  the  introduction  of  alfalfa.  It  will  probably  pay 
better  than  timothy  and  clover  in  some  parts  of  the  corn- 
belt,  but  does  not  combine  so  well  with  corn. 

Figures  23  and  24  show  the  distribution  of  labor  on 
alfalfa  in  latitude  about  42°,  about  as  far  north  as  Chicago. 


112  FABM  MANAGEMENT 

Because  of  the  large  amount  of  digestible  food  that  can 
be  produced  per  acre,  some  persons  have  recommended 
that  corn  for  the  silo  and  alfalfa  and  no  other  crops  be 
grown  by  the  dairy  farmer.^  This  will  perhaps  produce 
the  most  food  per  acre,  but  to  produce  the  greatest  profit 
is  another  question.  If  a  large  area  of  corn  for  the  silo 
and  alfalfa  are  grown,  there  is  a  rush  of  work  trying  to  get 
the  heavy  first  crop  of  alfalfa  cured,  and,  at  the  same  time, 
trying  to  keep  the  weeds  down  in  the  cornfield.  Again 
in  Illinois,  the  last  cutting  of  alfalfa  and  silo  filling  conflict. 
The  teams  can  raise  more  corn  than  they  can  put  in  the  silo. 
With  such  a  type  of  farming,  one  would  either  be  very 
short  of  men  and  horses  at  certain  periods,  or  else  have 
idle  ones  most  of  the  year.  The  horses  on  such  a  farm 
might  just  as  well  raise'  oats  and  timothy  and  corn  for 
grain  in  addition  to  the  com  silage  and  alfalfa.  A  limited 
amount  of  corn  silage  can  be  grown  with  a  limited  amount 
of  alfalfa  and  combine  other  crops  to  good  advantage. 

In  the  North  Atlantic  States,  where  hay  is  one  of  the 
most  profitable  crops,  alfalfa  combines  well  with  clover 
and  timothy.  The  alfalfa  is  cut  before  the  new  seeding 
of  clover  and  timothy,  then  follows  timothy,  and  then 
the  second  cutting  of  alfalfa.  In  the  fall  a  third  cutting 
of  alfalfa  is  ready.  This  allows  eight  to  ten  weeks  to  be 
spent  in  haying  —  a  very  desirable  condition  when  hay  pays 
as  well  as  it  does  in  this  section.  Unfortunately,  only  a 
small  proportion  of  the  soil  in  this  section  is  adapted  to 
alfalfa. 

In  some  irrigated  sections  in  warm  regions,  as  in  Arizona, 
alfalfa  alone  provides  almost  constant  work. 

85.  Distribution  of  labor  on  corn  and  cotton.  —  Corn 
conflicts  more  or  less  with  cotton,  alfalfa,  winter  wheat, 

1  Illinois,  Circular  151. 


DIVERSIFIED   AND   SPECIALIZED   FARMING     113 


HOUf?S 
600 


500 


J<\n   Feb.  /Ao-R    ApR.  /Aa>^  June  July    AofJ.  Sept.  Oct    Nov.    Dec. 


Fig.  27.  —  Distribution  of  man  laljor  in  raising  67  acres  of  timothy  hay. 
Black  is  fertilizing,  seeding,  haying,  etc.  White  is  manuring,  baling, 
and  selling. 


HOURS 
SCO 


^00 


200 


J^/V/^^B/^A/iAPfinAYJ(/N.Jl/L   AUG  dLP OCT  A/Ol^ D^C 


Fig.  28.  —  Di.stribution  of  horse  labor  in  raising  67  acres  of  timothy  hay. 
Black  is  work  fixed  as  to  time,  applying  fertilizer,  seeding,  haying,  etc. 
White  is  manuring,  baling,  marketing,  etc. 


114  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

tobacco,  sugar-beets.  In  the  corn-belt,  the  chief  crops 
are  corn,  clover  and  timothy  hay,  and  oats.  These  fit 
together  well.  In  the  winter  wheat  belt  of  Kansas  and 
Nebraska,  there  is  very  serious  conflict  between  wheat, 
alfalfa,  and  corn,  as  previously  discussed. 

Cotton,  corn,  and  tobacco  are  the  great  crops  for  the 
South.  The  work  on  these  conflicts  seriously,  particu- 
larly in  the  northern  part  of  the  cotton  region.  Farther 
south  cotton  and  corn  go  together  better.  Cotton  in- 
terferes with  most  other  crops.  This  is  one  reason  why 
cotton  farming  has  so  often  been  a  one-crop  system. 

In  the  North  Atlantic  States,  corn  conflicts  with  potatoes 
(see  Figures  25  and  33),  apples,  truck  crops,  and,  to  some 
extent,  with  field  beans  and  cabbage.  For  these  reasons, 
corn  growing,  except  in  small  areas  for  the  silo,  is  on  the 
decline,  not  because  it  does  not  pay,  but  because  the  other 
crops  often  pay  better.  The  profits  from  these  crops 
will  often  much  more  than  buy  the  corn  that  the  same 
work  would  produce. 

The  work  on  corn  and  sugar  beets  conflicts,  so  that  few 
sugar  beets  are  grown  in  the  best  corn  regions.  It  has 
been  shown  that  sugar  beets  grow  well  and  factories  have 
been  built,  but  corn  pays  better,  so  that  the  factories  have 
usually  been  moved  to  regions  where  corn  is  not  so  suc- 
cessful. 

86.  Distribution  of  labor  on  oats.  —  The  spring-sown 
oat  crop  seems  to  be  singularly  free  from  conflicts  (Figs. 
29  and  30).  For  this  reason,  oats  are  extensively  grown 
in  regions  where  they  are  the  least  profitable  crop  in  the 
rotation.  Since  there  is  nothing  better  to  do,  many 
farmers  raise  oats  when  they  get  small  pay  for  the  time 
so  spent.  Oats  conflict  with  barley,  with  apple  spraying, 
and  some  other  crops,  but  only  a  comparatively  few  farmers 


DIVERSIFIED   AND   SPECIALIZED   FARMING     115 

grow  these.  Even  with  barley,  the  conflict  is  not  direct. 
Barley  harvest  usually  precedes  oats.  Barley  may  be 
planted  a  little  after  oats,  as  it  stands  heat  better.     Oats 

H0Ui?3 


IQQ 


M 


Jd>n.  F.eb.  /^AR,  ApR.  /*\ay  June  July   A o<^.  Sept.  Oct.    Wov.   Deo. 

Fig.  20. — Di.stribution  of  man  labor  in  raising  23  aoros  of  oats.     Blade 
is  work  fixed  as  to  time.    White  is  threshing  from  stack  and  plowing. 


also  fit  in  well  with  corn.  In  most  of  the  corn-belt,  oats 
are  grown  on  corn  ground  without  plowing.  They  also 
furnish  a  crop  with  which  to  seed  grass. 

In  regions  where  the  land  is  plowed  for  oats,  it  is  im- 
portant that  the  land  be  fall  plowed  whenever  possible. 

H0UR5. 

500 


zss. 


ISl 


ftoR. 


^•f       June      Jul|       fto^.       Sept.       Oct       flfov.  Oeo. 

Fig.  30.  —  Distribution  of  horse  labor  in  raising  23  acres  of  oats.      Black 
is  work  fixed  as  to  time.     White  is  threshing  and  plowing. 


This  relieves  the  pressure  of  spring  work  and  makes  it 
possible  to  sow  the  oats  earlier  in  the  season. 

In  the  South,  both  barley  and  oats  arc  sown  in  the  fall, 


116 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


HOURS 
^0 


300 


ZOO 


100 


Jan.   Feb    r\o>R  Apn    /^Ay  June  July    Au<^   SepT  Oct    AJov    Deo. 


Fig.  31.  —  Distribution  of  man  labor  in  raising  21  acres  of  wheat. 
Black  is  work  fixed  as  to  time.  White  is  threshing  from  stack. 
Plowing  and  harvesting  were  both  done  in  July  and  August.  Plant- 
ing in  September. 


HOUf?S 
600 


500 


400 


500 


300 


100 


J^n    Teb    AaR    ApK    /AoiY   June  July     AuiJ    Sep1  Oct     Nov      Deo. 

Fig.  32.  —  Di.stribution  of  horse  labor  in  raising  21   acres  of  wheat. 
Black  is  work  fixed  as  to  time.     White  is  threshing. 


DIVERSIFIElJ  AND   SPECIALIZED  FARMING     117 

SO  that  they  have  much  the  same  labor  distribution  as 
winter  wheat. 

87.    Distribution   of  labor    on   wLeat.  —  Spring   wheat 
has  much  the  same  labor  distribution  as  oats.     Winter 

HOURS 
40O 


300 


goo 


J<>>n    Feb     Mar   Apr;    A\<j>y    June  Jul>(     AoO   &epT.   OcT.      Nov.    Pec< 

Fig.  33.  — Distribution  of  man  labor  on  11  acres   of  potatoes.     Black 
is  work  fixed  as  to  time.     White  is  plowing  and  marketing. 

wheat  harvest  conflicts  with  alfalfa  cutting  in  some  regions ; 
it  sometimes  conflicts  with  timothy  and  clover  harvest. 

H0UR5 
400 


goo 
goo 


Jad    Feb    /Aar  ApR     Ady     June   July    Ao$.    Sept   Oc-f     Nov     Deo 

¥\G.  34.  —  Distribution  of  horse  labor  on  11  acres  of  potatoes.     Black 
is  work  fixed  as  to  time.     White  is  plowing  and  marketing. 


118  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

The  plowing  should  be  done  as  early  as  possible.  In 
some  regions  this  makes  it  conflict  with  the  second  cutting 
of  alfalfa. 

88.    Distribution    of  labor   on  potatoes   and   cabbages 
and  apples. — -In  the  North,  potatoes  conflict  with  corn, 

HOUf?S 
400 


Jao    Feb    MdR    Ap«.    /^^Y  '<^'^r>Q,  July    Auc^.   SepT    Oct    A/ov.   Dec- 


Fig.  35.  —  Distribution  of  man  labor  on  3  acres  of  apples.     Black  is 
work  fixed  as  to  time.     White  is  marketing,  manuring,  etc. 

and  early  potatoes  conflict  with  the  early  spring  crops. 
Late  potatoes  and  winter  apples  conflict  very  seriously, 
not  only  at  apple-spraying  time  but  at  apple-picking  time. 

H0UR6 


100 


Jah      feb      WVftn      ftpR     May     June     July     A"5       Sept.    Ott.    Not.        Deo. 

Fig.  36.  —  Distribution  of  horse  labor  on  3  acres  of  apples.     Black  is 
work  fixed  as  to  time.     White  is  marketing,  manuring,  etc. 

Late  cabbages  fit  in  almost  perfectly  with  either  winter 
apples  or  potatoes.  We  find  many  farmers  combining 
cabbages  and  potatoes,  and  cabbages  and  apples,  but  the 


DIVERSIFIED  AND   SPECIALIZED  FARMING     119 

combination  of  late  potatoes  and  winter  apples  is  very 
unusual.  Of  course,  a  small  acreage  of  each  would  re- 
quire much  the  same  labor  as  a  larger  acreage  of  one,  but 
this  requires  double  equipment  and  has  many  other  dis- 
advantages. 

89.  Distribution  of  labor  on  beef  cattle  and  sheep 
and  hogs.  —  None  of  the  meat-producing  animals  re- 
quires much  work.  This  is  one  reason  why  the  margin 
of  profit  is  so  close  on  such  animals.  If  one  does  not  feed 
very  skillfully,  he  has  no  other  means  of  making  up  for  the 
mistake. 

Beef  cattle  interfere  very  little  with  farm  work.  During 
the  summer  they  are  at  pasture,  and  if  the  water  supply 
is  convenient,  they  require  very  little  attention. 

Sheep  require  most  attention  at  lambing  time.  This 
sometimes  interferes  with  spring  work,  but  usually  is 
early  enough  so  as  to  cause  little  trouble.  Sheep  shearing 
conflicts  with  spring  work,  but  is  a  short  job  if  only  a  few 
sheep  are  kept.  If  many  are  kept  extra  shearers  are 
usually  hired.  Sheep  interfere  with  crops  so  much  less 
than  dairying  does  that  many  farmers  who  have  highly 
profitable  crops  keep  sheep  when  cows  would  pay  much 
better,  if  they  did  not  interfere  with  crop  growing.  Winter 
dairying  does  not  interfere  quite  so  much,  but,  in  general, 
sheep  or  winter  feeding  interfere  with  crops  less  than 
dairying  does.  If  the  region  has  profitable  crops,  the  com- 
bination of  sheep  and  crops  may  pay  better  than  cows 
and  crops,  because  cows  limit  the  crops  that  can  be  grown. 
But  if  crops  do  not  pay  very  well,  the  combination  of  cows 
and  crops  is  usually  better  than  sheep  and  crops. 

Hogs  require  relatively  little  attention,  except  when  the 
pigs  are  coming.  The  spring  pigs  sometimes  interfere 
with  spring  work,  and  fall  pigs  may  interfere  with  fall 


120 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


HOURS 
500 


J<\n.  Feb.    A'\<»R    Ap«.   /Aav   ^""^  J^'^'Y     '^'^^    '^®P^   ^^^     ^°^     '^^^• 

Fig.  37.  —  Distribution  of  man  labor  in  raising  15  acres  of  cabbage. 
Black  is  work  fixed  as  to  time.  White  is  manuring,  plowing,  and 
marketing. 


HOURS 

50O 


400 


i££ 


Joko     Teb     /AcKH     ApH     /«\ay    June    July     Ao(j    SepI      Oof     A(ov      Deo, 

Fig.  .38.  —  Distribution  of  horse  labor  in  raising  15  acres  of  cabbage. 
Black  is  work  fixed  as  to  time.  White  is  manuring,  plowing,  and 
marketing. 


DIVERSIFIED  AND   SPECIALIZED  FARMING     121 

work.  If  the  water  and  feed  supply  are  conveniently 
arranged,  there  is  usually  little  serious  conflict  with  other 
work.  Sometimes  hogs  are  used  to  harvest  or  ''  hog  off " 
corn  and  grains.  They  may  then  be  a  help  in  getting 
farm  work  done. 

90.  Distribution  of  labor  on  poultry. — The  monthly 
distribution  of  labor  in  raising  and  caring  for  hens, 
washing  and  marketing  eggs,  is  shown  in  Fig.  39.  It 
includes  all  the  time  involved  in  keeping  a  flock  of 
500  and  raising  about  1200  chickens,  or  about  600 
pullets.  The  flock  was  kept  on  a  318-acre  diversified 
farm.  The  hens  were  in  one  large  house.  A  feed  bin  in 
the  house  was  filled  from  a  wagon ;  the  house  was  cleaned 
by  driving  through  with  a  manure  spreader.  The  chickens 
were  raised  in  three  lots  by  two  incubators.  The  buildings 
and  other  arrangements  were  such  as  to  facilitate  labor. 
It  will  be  seen  at  once  that  it  would  require  many  hens 
to  keep  one  person  busy,  as  the  care  of  this  flock  only 
requires  about  two  hours  a  day  except  during  the  incu- 
bating season,  when  it  requires  about  six  hours  a  day. 
This  is  a  very  unequal  distribution  of  labor.  The  largest 
amount  of  work  with  poultry  is  in  raising  chickens. 
This  comes  at  the  same  time  as  the  largest  amount  of 
work  with  hens,  washing  eggs,  and  preparing  them  for 
market.  "  Seed  time  and  harvest  "  come  at  the  same 
time  with  poultry.  This  work  interferes  seriously  with 
the  spring  work  on  a  farm.  It  fits  best  on  farms  that  have 
the  highest  pressure  of  work  at  some  other  season.  It  fits 
better  with  hay  and  winter  wheat  than  with  larger  areas 
of  spring-planted  crops.  Frequently,  much  of  the  poultry 
work  is  done  by  women  so  that  it  does  not  interfere  with ' 
farm  work. 


122 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


DIVERSIFIED    FARMING    FOR   DAIRY    FARMS 

91.  Labor  distribution  in  dairying.  —  Dairying  is  the 
standard  illustration  of  an  ideal  type  of  farming,  because 
it  provides  winter  work.  When  it  is  combined  with  other 
enterprises,  this  is  a  very  important  point,  but  wholesale 
dairying  alone  is  one  of  the  worst  possible  kinds  of  farming 

HOURS 

aoo 


100 


J&n.  Fe-b.   Aaa  ApR.   A^y  Jone  Jol^   Ao^.  Sept.  OtT.    A/ov    Dec 

Fig.  39.  —  Black  is  distribution  of  man  labor  in  caring  for  500  hens. 
White  is  distribution  of  labor  in  raising  1200  chickens. 

for  keeping  men  and  horses  busy.  If  a  farmer  has  noth- 
ing to  do  but  milk  cows  and  raise  the  feed  for  them, 
he  has  a  labor  problem  between  milkings  every  day,  be- 
cause the  number  of  cows  that  a  man  can  milk  is  not 
enough  to  keep  him  busy  between  milkings.     Few  men 

M0Uf?5 
100 


Fig. 


Jan   Feb    Aar  Apf?    Aay  June  July   Auo    5epT  OoT     Nov     Deo 

40.  —  Distribution  of  horse  labor  for  500  hens  and  raising  1200 
chickens. 


can  milk  over  ten  to  fifteen  cows,  because  the  muscles  of 
the  wrists  become  too  tired. 

In  well-managed  dairies  where  milk  is  sold  at  whole- 
sale, it  requires  aliout  150  hours  of  work  per  cow  per  year. 
Ten  or  12  cows  furnish  only  about  half  work  for  one  man. 


DIVERSIFIED  AND   SPECIALIZED  FARMING     123 

But  a  man  cannot  ordinarily  care  for  as  many  as  20  or  25 
cows.  This  would  moan  full  work  seven  days  in  the  week, 
with  no  one  to  take  the  work  if  the  man  got  sick.  But 
two  men  can  take  care  of  this  number  of  cows  and  work 
about  half  time  at  other  things.  If  one  man  is  away  or 
sick,  it  is  then  possible  to  get  the  chores  done.  The  two 
men  can  raise  feed  for  horses,  and  hay  and  silage  and  some 

HOURS 
500 


400 

300  I 

goo 

100 


Jao.  Feb.  /Aar  a  PR.  A\ay  June  Jo\y  Ao(^.  Sept.  Oct  Nov.    Deo. 

Fig.  41.  —  Distribution  of  man  labor  on  18  cows  and  11  other  cattle. 
White  is  milk  hauling. 

grain  for  the  cows,  and  in  addition  can  raise  cash  crops 
to  sell  or  do  other  kinds  of  work. 

If  the  wife  and  children  help  milk,  this  provides  for  the 
extra  help  needed  at  milking  time.  One  man  can  do  his 
share  of  the  milking,  haul  the  milk,  and,  with  a  little 
help  in  harvest,  raise  the  feed  for  twenty  or  thirty  cows. 
If  his  wife  and  children  milk,  he  may  have  a  full  year's 
work.  This  is  merely  another  way  of  saying  that  dairying 
is  only  a  partial  day's  work.  The  wife  helps  with  the 
milking  and  does  housework  between  milkings,  or  the  chil- 


124  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

dren  go  to  school  between  milkings.  This  is  the  common 
practice  in  all  dairy  sections  where  nothing  but  milk, 
butter,  or  cheese  is  sold.  It  is  the  custom  not  only  in 
America,  but  in  all  other  countries.  Occasionally  a  farmer 
has  such  unusually  good  cows,  or  has  money  enough,  so 
that  he  can  hire  men  to  milk,  even  though  he  does  not 
have  work  for  them  between  milkings. 

A  much  more  satisfactory  way  of  solving  the  problem 
is  to  raise  some  kind  of  crops,  fruits,  or  vegetables  for 
sale.  Men  can  then  do  all  the  milking  and  can  be  kept 
profitably  employed  between  milkings.  This  is  the  way 
that  the  problem  is  usually  solved  on  the  most  successful 
farms.  Sometimes  the  crops  sold  will  much  more  than 
pay  the  entire  labor  bill. 

The  same  problem  arises  in  keeping  horses  busy.  To 
haul  milk  and  manure  and  raise  feed  for  the  cows  does  not 
keep  horses  busy,  but*  this  combined  with  other  enter- 
prises makes  a  good  business. 

Winter  dairying  helps  the  labor  situation,  as  there  is 
then  less  work  on  cows  at  the  time  when  crops  require 
the  most  work. 

There  are  some  cases  in  which  a  specialized  dairy 
farm  may  pay  best.  There  is  occasionally  a  dairy  farm 
where  one  man  milks  as  many  as  20,  and  in  one  case  the 
writer  has  seen  24  cows  regularly  milked  by  one  man. 
To  milk  and  care  for  this  number  of  cows  is  a  full  day's 
work.     But  few  men  can  milk  this  number. 

If  a  soiling  system  is  practiced,  there  is  less  loss  of  time, 
but  this  system  is  not  profitable  except  under  very  unusual 
conditions  (page  177). 

If  a  dairyman  retails  milk,  this  provides  work  between 
milkings.  Even  with  retail  milk,  many  farmers  combine 
other  enterprises. 


DIVERSIFIED  AND   SPECIALIZED   FARMING     125 


HOUI?S 
4-00 


Je.n.  Feb.  Aar  A^R.  Aay  Jwnc  Julx  Ao(^.  Sept  Oct.  Now.  Dec, 

Fig.  42.  —  Distril)utioii  of  field  labor  of  men  on  a  Dakota  grain  farm, 
raising  280  acres  wheat,  127  acres  oats,  60  acres  barley,  49  acres  flax, 
20  acres  hay.     52  acres  fallow.*  * 


HOUf?& 


Jao.  Feb.  /V\ar  At*.  May  Jone  July  Au^.  Scft.  Oct   Afov.  Peo. 

Fio.  4.'i.  —  Distribution  of  field  labor  et  horses  on  farm  given  above. 

1  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Yearbook,  i911,  p.  278, 


126 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


Sometimes  pure-bred  stock  and  wholesale  milk  produc- 
tion are  combined,  and  the  extra  work  and  care  necessary 

HOURS 
400 


Jao.  Feb.  t\i,f{.  ApR.  /Aay  June  Jul^  Au<J.5ept  Oct.  Nov.  Dec 

Fig.  44.  —  Distribution  of  field  labor  of  men  on  a  general  farm  in  the 
Middle  West,  raising  95  acres  of  corn,  28  acres  of  oats,  7  acres  of  spring 
wheat,  8  acres  of  v/inter  wheat,  6  acres  of  barley,  37  acres  timothy 
and  clover  hay,  7  acres  of  alfalfa  hay,  48  aces  of  timothy  seed,  4  acres 
of  potatoes.! 

may  keep  the  men  busy,  but  unless  the  stock  is  exceptional, 

it  can  best  be  combined  with  cash  crops  or  with  retailing. 

A  few  farmers  produce  certified  milk.     The  extra  work 

Hours 


ftoo 


J^n.  Feb  /AAf?.Aptr.  /VU,(  June  Jul  >(  hv(^.  5epT.  Oct.  Nov.  Peo. 
FlO.  45.  —  Distribution  of  field  labor  of  horses  on  farm  given  above. 
»  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Yearbook,  1911,  p.  279. 


DIVERSIFIED  AND   SPECIALIZED  FARMING      127 

involved  in  keeping  things  clean  then  keeps  the  milkers 
employed.  Some  certified  milk  farms  raise  other  products 
with  little  extra  labor.  Thus  far,  much  of  the  certified 
milk  has  been  produced  by  wealthy  men  who  have  dis- 
regarded profits.  But  the  business  is  now  getting  shorn 
of  unnecessary  fads  and  is  beginning  to  attract  farmers. 

92.  Other  reasons  for  diversified  farming  on  dairy 
farms.  —  Dairying  combines  so  well  with  other  kinds  of 
farming,  uses  waste  land  for  pastures,  uses  the  poorer  hay 
and  roughage  so  well,  makes  manure,  provides  work  that 
women  and  children  can  do  if  necessary,  and  has  so  many 
other  good  points  that  butter  or  wholesale  milk  alone 
can  never  provide  a  business  of  high  profits.  Dairying 
will  always  be  done  on  a  very  close  margin,  and  will  usu- 
ally tend  to  be  overdone.  For  this  reason,  it  is  of  the 
utmost  importance  that  milk  production  be  combined 
with  some  more  profitable  enterprise,  such  as  cash  crops. 

A  very  large  part  of  the  milk  and  butter  supply  is  pro- 
duced by  farmers  who  keep  a  half  dozen  cows  and  who 
derive  most  of  their  income  from  other  enterprises.  The 
cows  use  up  some  of  the  cheaper  farm  feed  and  produce 
manure  for  raising  cash  crops.  The  work  on  them  is  done 
at  a  small  cost.  The  few  cows  may  be  kept  whether  they 
really  pay  or  not.  It  is  almost  impossible  for  one  who  sells 
nothing  but  wholesale  milk  or  butter  to  compete  with 
these  conditions.  The  special  dairyman  must  secure  a 
better  price,  have  something  else  to  sell,  or  be  content 
with  small  pay,  and  sometimes  no  pay  for  his  own  work. 

Some  leading  dairymen  insist  that  milk  is  a  by-product, 
that  it  cannot  be  expected  to  pay,  that  the  chief  reason  for 
keeping  cows  is  to  get  the  manure.  If  this  is  the  case,  it 
will  at  once  be  seen  that  if  the  manure  is  not  used  to  grow 
cash  crops,  the  whole  system  fails.     For  if  the  manure  is 


128 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


merely  used  to  grow  feed  for  cows  to  get  more  manure 
to  raise  more  feed  for  cows,  there  is  no  cash  coming  in 
except  from  the  milk.  The  milk  must  then  pay  for  the 
manure.  Placing  a  high  value  on  manure  does  not  then 
help  the  situation.  But  if  part  of  the  manure  is  used  to 
grow  profitable  cash  crops,  the  system  may  pay  well. 

93.  Relation  of  diversified  farming  to  profits  on 
wholesale  market  milk  farms.  —  The  average  results 
for  166  dairy  farms  in  New  York  are  shown  in  Tallies 
20  and  21.  They  are  the  farms  in  ten  townships  having 
six  or  more  cows  and  selling  milk  at  wholesale.  Most 
cf  those  in  Tompkins  County  shipped  to  New  York,  and 
most  of  those  in  Livingston  County  sliipped  to  Rochester. 

For  Tompkins  County,  the  farmers  who.  sold  practically 

Table  20.  —  Diversifikd  Farming  Related  to  Profits  on 
Farms  Selling  Wholesale  Market  Milk  —  Tompkins 
County,  New  York^ 


Receipts  prom 

w  1 

2) 

£ 

^ 

Crops  for 
Each  Dollar 

logg 

o% 

< 

^  s 

°  0 

W   -  Ai 

o 
O 

■>!  O 

Received 

a  «  o  2 
>  a  «  « 

p  % 

« 

z  z 

sS 

«^R 

w  g  « 

» 
H 

S5 

from  Stock 

<0h  £o 

'^,^ 

< 

<^ 

►-3 »— ( 

Ph  &.CC 

tf  £o 

Pti 

Hi-3 

Acres 

No  crops  sold 

0% 

2 

150 

26 

$251 

$1,288 

— 

$79 

$726 

$0.10  or  less 

3% 

13 

83 

18 

321 

1,012 

$36 

84 

475 

$0.11-$0.20  . 

14% 

13 

138 

22 

476 

1,136 

178 

69 

606 

$0.21-$0.50  . 

23% 

31 

137 

20 

766 

1,282 

387 

82 

584 

$0.51-S1.00  . 

39% 

25 

177 

20 

725 

1,093 

707 

75 

675 

Over  $1.00   . 

54% 

5 

128 

23 

768 

911 

1,085 

63 

753 

1  New  York,  Cornell  Bulletin  295,  p.  507. 

2  An  animal  unit  means  the  approximate  number  of  cows  that  the 
stock  is  equal  to  in  food  required  and  manure  produced.  One  cow,  horse, 
or  bull  are  counted  as  one.  Seven  sheep,  5  hogs,  or  100  hens  are  counted 
as  one  animal  unit.  Two  colts,  heifers,  calves,  14  lambs,  10  pigs,  are 
counted  as  one  animal  unit. 

3  Total  labor  includes  the  value  of  all  paid  and  unpaid  labor,  the 
farmer's  labor  jjeing  estimated  at  $326. 


DIVERSIFIED  AND   SPECIALIZED  FARMING       129 

no  crops,  depending  almost  entirely  on  their  stock,  on  the 
average  made  less  than  a  hired-man's  wages.  Their  labor 
incomes  averaged  only  $312.  Those  who  derived  more 
from  crops  than  from  stock  averaged  $768.  Each  of  the 
groups  that  derived  at  least  one-fifth  of  the  income  from 
crops  averaged  well. 

It  is  evident  that  the  farmers  in  this  county  who  sell 
little  but  market  milk  find  it  impossible  to  make  a  reason- 

Tablb  21.  —  Diversified  Farming  Related  to  Profits  on 
Farms  Selling  "Wholesale  Market  Milk.  —  Livingston 
County,  New  York 


Per  Cent 
OF   Receipts 
PROM  Crops 

0% 

(S        < 
H  U  H 
>  0  * 
<<< 

Labor 
Income 

Receipts 

FROM 

Crops 

Receipts 

FROM 

Stock 

Receipts 
PER  Cow 

FROM 

Milk, 

ETC. 

Total 
Labor 

15%  or  less  . 
16%-30%    . 
31%-50%    . 
Over  50%     . 

14 

28 
25 
10 

209 
218 
264 
174 

$769 
1,210 
1,284 
1,225 

$392 

988 

1,863 

1,972 

$3,589 
3,403 
3,057 
1,284 

$82 
92 
81 
57 

$941 
979 

1,259 
761 

able  profit.  Of  28  farmers  who  received  less  than  $0.20 
from  crops  for  each  dollar  from  stock,  only  7  made  labor 
incomes  as  high  as  $600.  Six  of  these  men  derived  a 
considerable  part  of  their  income  from  other  sources  than 
cows.  They  sold  crops,  eggs,  wool,  colts,  etc.  But  of 
the  market  milk  farmers  who  derived  over  one-third  of 
their  receipts  from  crops,  57  per  cent  made  labor  incomes 
of  over  $600. 

A  study  was  made  of  the  individual  farms  that  sold 
market  milk  and  that  derived  over  80  per  cent  of  their 
income  from  milk  and  cattle.  There  were  14  such  farms. 
A  number  of  these  kept  excellent  cows.  But  only  4  of 
the  farmers  made  labor  incomes  as  large  as  $500.     The 


130  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

largest  was  $881.  This  farmer  received  $242  from  the 
sale  of  eggs  and  crops. 

It  is,  of  course,  possible  to  make  a  living  and  some 
profit  when  selling  little  but  market  milk.  The  last 
farmer  mentioned  above  ought  to  save  money,  but  a  few 
of  his  neighbors  with  no  better  cows  are  making  labor 
incomes  of  nearly  $3000  by  combining  cash  crops  with 
milk.  It  is  often  possible  to  make  a  fair  profit  with  ex- 
treme specialization,  but  larger  profits  can  nearly  always 
be  secured  by  combining  other  things  with  the  specialty. 

The  farms  selling  the  most  crops  are  about  the  same  size 
as  the  more  exclusively  dairy  farms.  The  cows  are  doing 
a  little  better  on  these  dairy  farms  than  on  the  general 
farms.  The  number  of  animals  kept,  and  the  total  re- 
■  ceipts  from  animals,  are  about  the  same  in  each  group  of 
farms.  The  labor  cost  is  a  little  more  on  the  farms  selling 
the  most  crops. 

The  only  striking  difference  is  in  receipts  for  crops  sold 
and  consequent  difference  in  labor  income.  Those  farmers 
who  sell  crops  are  increasing  their  receipts  from  25  to  100 
per  cent  by  raising  crops  to  sell,  with  practically  the  same 
man  and  horse  labor  that  is  required  to  take  care  of  the  cows. 
This  same  point  is  shown  by  studying  the  most  successful 
farms  on  pages  133  to  139. 

If  there  is  land  enough,  a  little  extra  help  in  summer  will 
make  it  possible  to  have  $500  to  $1500  worth  of  crops  to  sell. 

The  men  who  sell  nothing  but  milk  are  not  fully  em= 
ployed.  They  have  work  twice  every  day,  but  have  time 
to  raise  crops  for  sale  between  milkings.  Such  men  may 
keep  busy  by  fussing  with  the  cows,  but  the  prices  that 
the  farmers  receive  for  wholesale  milk  do  not  enable  them 
to  make  much  more  than  a  hired-man's  wages  unless  they 
have  something  besides  milk  to  sell. 


DIVERSIFIED  AND   SPECIALIZED  FARMING.    131 

It  is,  of  course,  possible  for  a  dairyman  who  depends 
entirely  on  cows  to  make  a  living  if  he  has  a  sufficient 
capital  or  if  he  has  unpaid  help  from  the  family,  even 
though  his  labor  income  is  no  better  than  a  hired-man's 
wages. 

Suppose  a  man  has  $10,000  capital  and  has  the  help 
of  a  son  whose  labor  is  worth  $300.  If  he  receives  $1000 
above  all  farm  expenses,  he  ought  to  be  saving  money. 
But  the  use  of  his  capital  is  worth  $500  and  the  son's  time 
$300.  This  leaves  $200  as  pay  for  the  farmer's  work  or 
his  labor  income.  If  he  were  in  debt  for  the  farm,  and  had 
to  pay  his  son,  he  could  barely  live. 

The  principle  shown  by  these  results  is  probably  of 
universal  application  wherever  men  do  the  milking, 
however  well  or  poorly  the  production  of  milk  at  whole- 
sale prices  may  pay.  The  combination  of  this  with  the 
proper  cash  crops  or  some  other  work  is  almost  certain  to 
pay  better. 

COMBINING    FARMING    WITH    OTHER  ENTERPRISES 

94.  Occasionally  farming  may  be  combined  with 
other  work.  —  The  idea  of  combining  farming  with  some 
sort  of  winter  manufacturing  is  constantly  coming  up. 
Sometimes.it  is  recommended  for  farmers,  and  sometimes 
it  is  a  philanthropic  scheme  to  establish  a  factory  and  farm 
community  that  shall  use  the  inefficient  persons  from 
the  city  and  at  the  same  time  figure  out  a  handsome 
profit. 

The  idea  of  locating  factories  in  small  towns  where 
each  workman  may  have  a  little  land  for  a  cow,  hens, 
and  a  garden  has  been  proved  a  success  by  thousands 
of  tests.      But  having  a  garden  that  helps  to  feed  the 


132  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

family  and  farming  to  make  a  living  are  very  different 
problems. 

There  are  a  few  small  manufacturing  enterprises  that 
are  carried  on  by  farmers  at  spare  time,  but  these  are 
very  unusual  and  are  constantly  on  the  decrease. 

Nearly  every  kind  of  manufacturing  enterprise  requires 
machinery  and  a  considerable  number  of  persons  for 
successful  work.  The  farmer  does  not  have  enough  men 
to  run  an  efficient  factory. 

The  factory  equipment  must  be  idle  when  the  farm 
work  is  being  done.  Usually  this  is  just  as  serious  as  to 
have  horses  or  equipment  idle  on  the  farm. 

EXTRA    LABOR   AVAILABLE   IN   SUMMER 

95.    There   is   more  labor   available   in  summer.  —  It 

is  not  at  all  necessary  that  the  farms  provide  as  much 
winter  work  as  summer  work.  A  very  large  part  of  the 
summer  work  is  done  by  the  farmer's  children  who  go  to 
school  during  the  winter.  Nearly  all  the  farm  boys  who 
are  attending  the  colleges,  high  schools,  and  those  who  are 
old  enough  from  the  district  schools  are  helping  on  the 
home  farms  in  the  summer.  This  is  a  vast  army  of 
seasonal  labor.  Every  town  and  city  contains  a  number 
of  persons  who  because  of  age,  health,  or  inclination  do 
not  care  to  work  all  the  year.  Many  of  these  persons  go 
out  to  help  in  harvest.  There  are  many  kinds  of  seasonal 
occupations  in  cities  that  do  not  provide  summer  work. 
Men  from  these  industries  often  help  in  harvest. 

The  long  days  in  summer  make  it  feasible  to  work  more 
hours  than  in  winter.  Factories  are  so  well  lighted  that 
season  is  ignored.  The  farmer  works  long  days  in  summer 
and  short  ones  in  winter. 


DIVERSIFIED  AND   SPECIALIZED   FARMING      133 


EXAMPLES   OF   SUCCESSFUL   TYPES   OF    FARMING 

96.  Successful  fanners  in  New  York.  —  The  Depart- 
ment of  Farm  Management  of  the  New  York  State  College 
of  Agriculture  has  secured  records  of  a  year's  business 
on  2743  farms.  These  are  practically  all  the  farms  in  six- 
teen townships  taken  from  three  counties  representing 
very  different  conditions,  Tompkins,  Livingston,  and 
Jefferson.  It  also  has  secured  records  of  293  farms  scat- 
tered about  the  state,  most  of  which  were  successful 
farms.  Table  22  shows  the  products  sold  on  all  of  the 
farms  that  made  laljor  incomes  as  high  as  $2500. 

These  farms  sold  from  one  to  six  major  products,  amount- 
ing to  over  $500  each,  and  sold  from  one  to  nine  minor 
products.  They  averaged  over  3  major  products  and 
over  4  minor  products.  In  addition,  nearly  all  of  them 
raised  some  feed  for  farm  use. 

On  two  farms  milk  was  the  only  product  amounting 
to  $500.  On  four  other  farms,  milk  and  pure-bred  cattle 
were  the  only  products  amounting  to  $500.  One  farm 
had  no  products  so  large  except  milk  and  profits  from 
retailing  milk  purchased,  and  one  had  no  $500  sales 
except  milk  and  profit  on  stock  dealing.  One  farm  had  no 
$500  sales  except  eggs  and  poultry.  This  makes  9  farms 
out  of  46  that  derived  their  major  sales  from  one  class 
of  stock.  But  milk  combined  with  pure-bred  stock  is  a 
very  different  proposition  from  milk  alone. 

In  these  regions  there  are  hundreds  of  farmers  who  sell 
little  but  dairy  products,  and  many  who  sell  only  one  or 
two  kinds  of  fruit  or  crops,  but  only  those  with  diversified 
farms  often  make  labor  incomes  of  $2500.  The  few  ex- 
ceptions are  usually  due  to  some  special  business,  like 
pure-bred  stock,  that  has  been  developed  for  many  years 


134 


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DIVERSIFIED  AND   SPECIALIZED  FARMING     135 


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DIVERSIFIED  AND   SPECIALIZED  FARMING     137 


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DIVERSIFIED   AND   SPECIALIZED  FARMING     141 

until  it  has  become  so  profitable  that  the  other  important 
products  have  been  dropped.  Nearly  all  such  farms  were 
more  diversified  in  the  early  years. 

97.  Successful  types  of  farming  in  various  regions. 
—  The  most  generally  successful  type  of  farming  in  New 
York  is  dairying,  combined  with  potatoes  and  hay  or  other 
cash  crops.  Corn  for  the  silo,  hay,  and  oats  are  raised  for 
feed.  Eggs  are  usually  a  minor  product  on  such  farms. 
In  those  parts  of  the  state  where  hay  is  cheap,  colts  are  a 
minor  product. 

If  the  dairy  cattle  are  pure-bred,  the  profits  are  usually 
larger,  but  more  capital  is  required.  It  usually  pays  to 
gradually  go  into  pure-breds  as  one's  capital  increases. 
Occasionally,  the  pure-bred  stock  become  so  profitable 
that  it  pays  to  drop  the  cash  crops.  But  such  cases  are 
rare.  Farms  that  retain  cash  crops  nearly  always  make 
more  than  similar  farms  that  omit  such  crops. 

If  the  land  is  not  adapted  to  other  crops,  hay  may  be  the 
only  cash  crop.  Those  who  have  two  or  more  cash  crops 
are  usually  doing  better  than  those  with  one. 

The  sale  of  milk  for  cities  usually  pays  better  than 
selling  butter  fat  to  a  creamery.  Selling  to  a  creamery 
usually  pays  better  than  making  butter. 

In  some  sections  where  the  soil  is  particularly  good, 
cabbages,  field  beans,  apples,  potatoes,  grapes,  truck 
crops,  or  canning  factory  crops  are  so  profitable  that  live- 
stock is  somewhat  reduced,  or  sheep  and  more  young 
stock  are  kept  so  as  to  leave  the  farmer  free  to  raise 
crops. 

The  same  general  conditions  prevail  in  Pennsylvania  and 
Ohio.  In  all  these  sections  there  is  great  diversity  in 
farming. 

For  the  corn-belt,  the  most  generally  successful  type  of 


142  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

farming  is  the  raising  of  corn  and  oats  for  sale,  together 
with  hogs,  dairying,  colts,  and  eggs.  Many  of  the  success- 
ful farms  sell  all  of  these  products.  Corn  and  hogs  are 
usually  the  most  important  sales.  Near  cities,  milk  is 
often  the  major  product.  But  the  most  successful  dairy 
farms  combine  corn  and  hogs  with  dairying. 

As  we  go  west,  oats,  corn,  and  hogs  decrease  and  whea.t 
increases.  For  central  Nebraska  and  Kansas,  the  most 
successful  types  of  farming  combine  wheat  as  the  major 
cash  crop,  with  colts,  eggs,  cows,  and  hogs.  Still  farther 
west,  wheat,  colts,  cattle,  and  eggs  are  the  most  important 
sales. 

Going  north  from  the  corn-belt,  the  most  generally  prof- 
itable type  of  farming  is  to  raise  wheat,  oats,  and  barley  as 
cash  crops,  combined  with  cows,  colts,  eggs,  and  some  hogs. 

In  the  South,  most  of  the  successful  farms  make  cotton 
the  major  cash  crop,  and  combine  com  and  hogs  or  other 
Hve-stock.     Hay  is  grown  for  home  use. 

It  is  better  to  have  two  to  four  important  products 
than  one.  It  is  usually  not  desirable  to  have  a  lot  of 
little  things.  Except  when  grown  for  home  use  only, 
there  should  be  enough  of  the  product  so  that  it  can  be 
produced  economically. 

References 

Seasonal  Distribution  of  Labor  on  the  Farm,  W.  J.  Spillman, 
U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Yearbook,  1911,  pp.  269-284. 

New  York,  Cornell  Bulletin  295. 

What  is  F'arm  Management,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bureau  of  Plant 
Industry,  Bulletin  269,  pp.  16-23. 

The  Place  of  f^eonomies  in  Agricultural  Education  and  Research, 
Wisconsin,  Research  Bulletin,  16  pp.  119-12r). 

Farm  Management,  F.  W.  (^ard,  pp.  73 -7S. 

Seedtime  and  Harvest  —  Average  Dates  of  Planting  and  Har- 
vesting in  the  United  States,  U,  S,  Dept.  Agr.,  Yearbook, 
1910,  pp.  4§8-494. 


CHAPTER  4 
INTENSIVE    AND    EXTENSIVE    FARMING 

Some  crops  require  much  more  work  than  others,  and 
when  successful  bring  high  returns  for  the  area  grown. 
Greenhouse  vegetables  and  fruits  are  typical  examples. 
Farming  with  such  crops  is  called  intensive  farming. 

There  are  also  intensive  and  extensive  methods  with 
any  product.  One  may  strive  for  very  high  production 
at  the  cost  of  much  extra  time  and  money,  or  may  be 
contented  with  smaller  production  at  less  cost. 

WAYS   OF   MEASURING   PROFITS 

98.  Ways  of  measuring  profit.  —  Perhaps  more  mis- 
takes are  made  by  using  inaccurate  ways  of  counting 
profit  than  by  any  other  means.  High-class  agricultural 
papers  have  quoted  the  total  value  of  all  the  descendants 
of  a  ewe  to  show  that  sheep  raising  pays. 

Nearly  all  agricultural  colleges  call  the  difference  be- 
tween the  value  of  the  milk  and  the  value  of  the  feed  of 
dairy  cows,  profit.  The  feed  is  usually  about  half  th? 
cost.  With  very  extensive  methods  of  dairying  in  Minne- 
sota, the  average  costs  for  six  years  on  many  farms  were, 
feed  per  cow  $23.13 ;  other  costs  $28.61.^  With  intensive 
methods  of  dairying,  and  higher  priced  feeci.  In  Connecticut, 
the  average  costs  per  cow  for  five  years  were  $84  for  feed 

1  Minnesota,  Bulletin  124,  p.  108. 
143 


144  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

and  $65  for  other  costs. ^  This  bulletin  is  a  notable  ex- 
ception to  the  usual  run  of  dairy  bulletins  that  ignore  all 
costs  except  feed. 

Nearly  all  colleges,  as  well  as  farmers,  speak  of  the 
difference  between  the  cost  of  fertilizer  or  any  other 
treatment  and  the  value  of  the  increased  crop  as  profit 
from  the  treatment.  How  far  the  cash  cost  of  fertilizer 
may  be  from  the  total  cost  of  the  increased  crop  is  shown 
on  page  164. 

Profit  per  acre  is  usually  considered  rather  than  profit 
per  farmer.  All  these  and  many  other  errors  in  arithmetic 
and  business  judgment  often  lead  to  the  recommendation 
of  methods  that  are  entirely  too  intensive  for  present 
conditions.  Farmers  are  gradually  using  more  intensive 
methods,  as  prices  of  farm  products  and  other  conditions 
make  such  methods  profitable.  But  it  rarely  pays  a 
farmer  to  follow  the  revolutionary  advice  of  the  enthu- 
siast who  has  just  returned  from  Europe.  America  may 
waste  land.     Europe  wastes  labor. 

Whenever  the  word  profit  or  net  profit  is  used  in  this 
book,  it  is  used  correctly.  It  means  profit  after  all  ex- 
penses of  every  kind  have  been  subtracted. 

99.  Theory  of  limitation  of  land.  —  The  usual  assump- 
tion of  nearly  all  writers  is  that  the  land  available  for  the 
individual  farmer  is  limited  and  that  the  profits  that  he 
can  make  are  directly  proportional  to  the  production  per 
acre.  This  mistaken  idea  seems  to  be  firmly  grounded  in 
the  minds  of  agricultural  writers  and  speakers.  One  col- 
lege has  issued  a  circular  in  which  the  opening  sentence 
is,  "  The  amount  of  milk  and  butter  fat  produced  per  acre 
is,  generally  speaking,  the  final  test  of  profitable  dairying 
where  all  feed  is  raised  on  the  farm." 

1  Connecticut,  Bulletin  73. 


INTENSIVE  AND   EXTENSIVE   FARMING  145 

Very  rarely  is  an  American  farmer  limited  to  any  partic- 
ular area.  It  is  nearly  always  possible  to  buy  or  rent  more 
land.  It  is  not  at  all  necessary  that  one  have  money 
enough  to  buy  all  the  land  that  he  farms.  Fifty-four  per 
cent  of  the  farmers  in  the  United  States  own  all  the  land 
that  they  farm,  9  per  cent  own  part  of  the  land  that  they 
are  farming  and  rent  part  of  it,  and  35  per  cent  rent  the 
entire  area. 

The  usual  assumption  seems  to  be  that  if  a  man  has  only 
'$1000,  he  must  find  a  farm  and  kind  of  farming  that  can 
be  conducted  with  this  capital  as  an  owner.  It  is  strange 
how  universally  writers  ignore  the  opportunities  as  tenants 
and  part  owners.  Nearly  three  million  farmers  in  the 
United  States  are  using  these  means  of  securing  a  start 
in  farming  rather  than  farm  on  the  small  area  that  their 
limited  capital  might  buy.  If  a  man  has  not  money 
enough  to  buy  and  equip  a  fair  sized  farm,  it  is  much 
better  for  him  to  rent  all  or  a  part  of  his  land.  (See 
page  309.) 

Not  only  is  land  for  an  individual  farmer  fairly  easy  to 
secure  bj'  rental  or  ownership,  but  the  land  of  the  country 
as  a  whole  is  far  from  exhausted.  The  fact  that  most  of 
our  land  is  held  by  a  deed  does  not  mean  that  the  supply 
of  land  is  exhausted.  One  needs  but  to  travel  over  the 
United  States  to  realize  how  many  millions  of  acres  there 
are  in  swamps  and  other  reclaimable  areas  not  in  farms. 
On  the  vast  majority  of  the  individual  farms  there  are 
areas  of  little  used  land ;  land  in  woods,  or  brush,  or  wet 
places,  that  may  be  reclaimed  whenever  prices  make  such 
reclamation  worth  while.  A  trip  through  the  Southern 
and  Eastern  States  impresses  one  with  our  tremendous 
reserve  supply  of  land  that  is  little  used,  but  that  will 
some  tlay  be  developed,  —  when  we  need  it. 
h 


146 


FABM  MANAGEMENT 


100.  Land  is  a  small  part  of  the  cost  of  crop  produc- 
tion. —  Labor  is  in  nearly  all  cases  the  most  important 
item  in  cost  of  production.  Highest  profits  can  only  be 
secured  when  proper  attention  is  given  to  all  the  factors 
of  cost.  But  if  only  one  factor  is  singled  out  as  the  im- 
portant one  it  should  be  labor  and  not  land.  Under  con- 
ditions of  very  extensive  farming  in  Minnesota  on  new  land 
that  is  not  fertilized,  the  use  of  land  varied  from  11  to  51 
per  cent  of  the  total  cost. 

Table  23.  —  Relation  of  Land  Cost  to  Total  Cost  of  Crop 
Production  in  Minnesota  ^ 


Total  Cost 

OF  Production 

PER  Acre 

Land  Rent 

Per  Cent  of 
Total  Cost 

Clover  and  timothy  hay 

Oats 

Corn  husked  from  stand- 
ing stalks 

Silage  corn 

Potatoes   

Mangels 

$5.59 

8.86 

10.44 
19.89 
26.37 
32.68 

$2.87 
2.87 

3.25 
3.50 
3.00 
3.50 

51% 
32% 

31% 
18% 
11% 
11% 

'  Minnesota,  Bulletin  117. 


As  land  becomes  more  valuable,  the  usual  assumption 
is  that  rent  will  constitute  a  larger  proportion  of  the  cost. 
The  opposite  is  more  likely  to  be  true,  because  more  in- 
tensive crops  and  more  intensive  methods  are  then  used. 
The  average  for  a  very  successful  New  York  farm  is  given 
in  Table  24.  Land  is  worth  $100  per  acre,  so  that  rent  is 
higher,  but  it  constitutes  only  6  to  50  per  cent  of  the  total 
cost  of  production,  depending  on  the  crop. 

101.  Profits  per  acre  and  profits  per  farmer.  —  A 
potato  crop  that  may  return  $50  per  acre,  or  a  lettuce 


148 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


crop  that  may  return  S500,  sound  very  much  bigger  than 
a  corn  crop  that  may  be  worth  $30  per  acre.  These 
figures  give  no  indication  of  the  profits.  When  all  costs 
are  subtracted,  the  crop  producing  the  highest  receipts  may 
not  give  the  largest  profit  per  acre.  But  even  profit  per 
acre  has  no  significance,  unless  we  know  how  many  acres 

Table  24.  —  Relation  of  Land  Cost  to  Total  Cost  of  Crop 
Production  on  a  Successful  New  York  Farm 


Cucumbers  . 
Cabbage  .  . 
Potatoes  .  . 
Oats 

Clover  hay  . 
Timothy  hay 


Total  Cost 

OF  Production 

Land  Rent 

PER  Acre 

$81 

$5 

74 

5 

59 

5 

18 

5 

14 

5 

10 

5 

Per  Cent  op 
Total  Cost 


6% 

7% 

8% 

28% 

36% 

50% 


a  farmer  can  grow,  how  this  fits  into  his  year  as  a  whole, 
and  how  much  capital  it  involves. 

The  most  important  problem  of  the  farmer,  particularly 
of  the  American  farmer,  is  how  to  get  the  most  for  his 
year's  labor.  If  cherries  give  a  net  profit  of  $50  per  acre, 
and  hay  a  profit  of  $10,  the  farmer  who  refuses  to  raise 
cherries  may  still  be  wise,  if  cherries  interfere  with  hay, 
because  the  time  required  to  raise  one  acre  of  cherries 
may  raise  10  acres  of  hay.  There  are  some  instances  in 
which  land  is  limited  so  that  the  acre  basis  has  some  im- 
portance, but  it  is  usually  easy  to  either  buy  or  rent 
land. 

The  results  of  a  set  of  cost  accounts  on  a  90-acre  farm  in 
1909  are  shown  in  Table  25.  This  farm  had  about  45  acres 
of  tillable  land.     From  the  usual  method  of  figuring  profits 


150 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


per  acre,  it  would  appear  as  if  this  farmer  should  phuit 
more  appl(»  trees,  because  aj^ples  gav(»  him  over  six  times 
the  profit  per  acre  that  he  secured  from  oats  and  hay. 
But  for  the  time  spent  on  it,  timothy  hay  gave  three  times 
as  much  profit  as  the  apple  orchard.  The  word  profit 
is  here  used  in  the  correct  sense.  The  hay  paid  for  the 
use  of  the  land,  use  of  buildings,  use  of  horses,  machinery, 
all  labor,  interest  on  these  costs  for  the  time  the  money 
was  invested,  and  all  other  costs,  and,  in  addition,  left 
a  profit  of  63  cents  for  each  hour  of  labor.  If  we  add  this 
to  the  labor  cost  of  18  cents  an  hour,  we  find  that  the  hay 
paid  all  expenses  except  labor,  and  paid  81  cents  an  hour 
for  labor  or  $8.10  for  each  ten-hour  day  spent  on  it.  The 
orchard  paid  $4.10  for  a  similar  day.  In  addition,  this 
was  known  to  be  an  average  year  for  hay  and  oats  and 
an  extra  good  year  for  the  orchard. 


Table  25.  —  Compaiiisox  of   Receipts   and  Profit  per  acre 
WITH  Profit  per  Hour  of  Jjabor 


Receipts  per 
Acre 

Profit  per 
Acre 

Profit  per 
Hour  of  Labor 

Orchard 

Oats 

Timothy  hay      .... 

$101.75 
26.42 
15.67 

$38.28, 
6.84 

6.37 

1 

$0.23 
.33 
.63 

After  studying  these  figures,  the  farmer  very  wisely 
decided  to  go  in  debt  for  another  farm  so  that  he  could 
raise  more  oats,  wheat,  and  hay.  He  preferred  to  sell 
his  labor  to  the  crops  that  paid  best  for  it.  The  wisdom 
of  this  procedure  was  shown  by  the  results  of  the  next 
three  years,  for  he  made  more  than  he  could  have  made 
in  twice  the  time  with  the  small  farm. 


INTENSIVE  AXD  EXTENSIVE  FARMING         151 


INTENSIVE   AND    EXTENSIVE    ENTERPRISES 

102.  Comparison  of  intensive  and  extensive  enterprises. 
—  Sometimes  the  crop  that  pays  the  largest  profit  per  hour 
is  also  most  profitable  per  acre.  Such  a  crop  is  doubly  de- 
sirable. But  the  vast  majority  of  American  farmers  are 
wise  in  continuing  to  raise  the  staple  crops.  The  world 
needs  hay  as  well  as  strawberries.  It  needs  cotton  as  well 
as  oranges,  and  seems  to  be  willing  to  pay  its  workers  just  as 
good  wages  for  the  extensive  as  for  the  intensive  crops. 

The  more  speculative  enterprises  have  more  violent 
ups  and  downs,  so  that  if  the  best  years  are  taken,  very 
surprising  results  may  be  shown.  On  one  farm  in  1911  the 
profit  on  15  acres  of  cabbages  was  $1 174.  In  the  same  year 
on  the  same  farm  the  loss  on  14  acres  of  cucumbers  was 
$555.  It  would  be  impossible  to  make  either  such  a  large 
profit  or  such  a  large  loss  on  hay.  The  average  of  the 
cucumbers  and  ?abbages  was  less  than  the  profit  made  on 
the  same  area  in  hay.  The  next  year,  1912,  cabbages  were 
so  ch?apthat  th^y  failed  to  pay,  but  cucumbers  paid  well. 
When  other  conditions  are  right  it  is  desirable  to  combine 
one  or  two  of  the  more  speculative  intensive  crops  with 
general  farm  crops. 

Whether  oranges,  grapes,  strawberries,  potatoes,  chickens 
or  roses,  or  some  other  intensive  crop,  will  pay  better 
than  corn,  oats,  wheat,  hay,  and  cotton,  and  cows,  is 
chiefly  a  matter  of  adaptation  to  conditions.  There  are 
conditions  under  which  apples  pay  better  tnaii  corn,  just 
as  there  are  conditions  under  which  corn  pays  better  than 
apples.  But  the  average  of  success  for  a  series  of  years 
in  the  best  apple  or  orange  regions  does  not  appear  to  be 
any  Ix'tter  than  the  average  in  the  l)est  corn  or  hay  re- 
gions.    The  more  speculative  enterprises  have  more  vio- 


152  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

lent  ups  and  downs,  so  that  in  some  years  they  pay  better 
and  in  some  years  they  cause  greater  losses.  But  there 
do  not  appear  to  be  any  types  of  farming  that  are  regularly 
more  profitable  than  other  types,  provided  each  type  is  con- 
ducted where  it  belongs. 

This  is  just  what  we  should  expect,  when  we  realize  that 
no  farmer  has  a  corner  on  any  crop.  Whenever  one  product 
pays  much  better  tlian  others,  there  is  always  a  rush 
of  farmers  into  that  industry.  We  may  be  fairly  sure  that 
if  some  one  thing  is  paying  abnormal  profits,  it  will  soon 
be  at  the  bottom  of  the  list  because  of  overproduction. 
(See  pages  76  and  89.) 

103.  Relation  of  intensive  and  extensive  enterprises  to 
capital.  — The  intensive  products  do  not  appear  to  require 
much  less  capital  than  the  extensive  for  the  same  profit. 
It  is  popularly  assumed  that  one  may  run  a  poultry  or  veg- 
etable farm  with  little  money  and  yet  make  a  good  profit. 
Less  land  may  be  required,  but  for  an  equally  good  profit, 
as  large  a  capital  is  usually  involved.  There  are  many 
poultry  and  truck  farms  with  small  capital,  but  the  poultry 
farmers  or  fruit  farmers  making  a  given  labor  income 
usually  have  as  much  capital  as  the  farmers  making  the 
same  labor  income  from  more  extensive  enterprises. 
There  may  be  less  capital  in  land,  but  more  capital  in 
other  things.  It  has  been  shown  on  page  95  that  for 
persons  with  small  capital,  crops  are  likely  to  pay  better 
than  live-stock.  In  this  case,  the  less  intensive  business 
pays  best  for  persons  with  small  capital. 

In  Table  22,  we  find  three  farms  (Nos.  24,  25,  34)  that 
are  very  intensive  farms  with  small  areas  and  small 
capitals.  But  four  of  the  small  intensive  poultry,  fruit, 
and  truck  farms  (Nos.  2,  8,  9,  and  20)  have  more  capital 
than  some  of  the  farms  of  150  to  200  acres. 


154  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

One  very  important  advantage  of  the  more  extensive 
types  of  farming  is  that  for  the  same  capital  more  land 
can  be  owned.  With  the  general  tendency  for  land  to 
rise  in  price,  the  profit  from  the  increased  value  of  the  farm 
is  often  as  great  as  the  savings  of  the  farmer. 

104.  Relation  of  crop  to  soil  and  treatment.  —  Intensive 
crops  should  be  grown  on  the  soil  best  adapted  to  them, 
unless  there  is  a  shortage  of  such  soil.  The  farmer  who 
tries  to  raise  truck  crops  on  soil  that  is  not  naturally  good 
for  this  purpose  will  find  it  very  difficult  to  compete  with 
farmers  on  better  soil.  Apples  can  be  grown  on  the  chea}) 
hill  soils  of  Pennsylvania  and  New  York.  Some  persons 
have  considered  that  this  is  sufficient  reason  for  recom- 
mending that  large  orchards  be  planted  on  this  cheap, 
poor  land.  But  there  is  plenty  of  good  land  in  these  states 
adapted  to  apples.  The  crop  should  be  grown  on  the 
good  apple  land  and  leave  the  land  that  is  not  so  good  for 
apples,  for  less  intensive  crops.    Most  farmers  realize  this. 

The  least  intensive  way  to  use  land  is  to  leave  it  in 
woods;  the  next  least  intensive  is  pasture.  Hay,  small 
grain,  and  cultivated  crops  follow  in  order. 

There  is  some  land  being  farmed  in  the  United  States 
that  cannot  by  any  means  be  made  to  pay  reasonable 
wages  to  the  operator,  at  the  present  prices  of  farm  prod- 
ucts. The  outlying  hills  of  the  Appalachian  and  other 
mountain  ranges  of  the  Eastern  States  have  many  such 
farms. 

This  fact  is  self-evident,  but  seems  to  be  forgotten  in 
the  wave  of  "  back-to-the-land  "  talk  that  now  fills 
American  publications.  No  one  advocates  working  an 
iron  mine  that  does  not  pay.  Why  work  land  that  does 
not  pay  decent  wages  to  the  operator  ?  It  has  often  been 
demonstrated  that  such  land  can  be  made  to  yield  big 


INTENSIVE  AND  EXTENSIVE  FARMING 


155 


crops.  ]3ut  such  a  demonstration  means  notliing  if  the 
cost  of  production  is  more  than  the  value  of  the  crops 
grown.  It  may  be  interesting  in  showing  us  how  easy  it 
will  be  to  increase  crops  when  the  prices  received  warrant 
the  increase.  Much  of  the  hill  land  now  in  farms  should 
be  used  in  the  least  intensive  way,  that  is,  for  forests. 


Fig.  49.  —  Using  land  too  intensively.  This  land  should  be  kept  in 
permanent  pasture.  The  farmer  cannot  make  reasonable  wages  by 
working  it.  When  population  becomes  very  dense,  it  may  be  needed 
for  crops. 

In  the  early  days,  when  most  of  the  work  was  done  with 
hand  tools  or  oxen,  the  farmers  seemed  to  have  no  idea 
of  the  difference  between  vertical  and  horizontal.  Much 
land  was  cleared  that  is  too  steep  for  profitable  use,  except 
in  growing  lumber.  Hills  were  not  such  a  serious  obstacle 
to  scythes  and  grain  cradles.  If  land  is  too  steep  for  the 
use  of  modern  machinery,  it  should  be  allowed  to  grow 
lumber  or  pasture.  A  profitable  way  of  using  much  of 
it  is  to  fence  it  in  fairly  large  tracts  for  pasture.  If  the 
pasture  is  too  small,  the  cost  of  fencing  is  too  great. 


my 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


How  fMrnicrs  luivo  bocn  forced  to  give  up  fanning  mueli 
hill  land  tliat  it  does  not  pay  to  farm  is  shown  ]>y  the  cen- 
sus figures.  In  New  Hampshire,  there  were  2,308,112 
acres  of  improved  hind  in  1880,  and  only  929,185  acres  in 
1910,  less  than  half  as  much.     Every  New  England  State 


Fig.  50.  —  Too  steep  to  farm  with  much  profit. 

has  shown  a  great  decrease  in  improved  land  in  farms.  At 
the  same  time,  the  best  land  in  these  states  is  being  used 
more  intensively  than  ever  before.  Men  are  starved  off 
the  poor  hillsides,  that  ought  to  be  in  white  pine,  at  the 
same  time  that  the  most  intensive  systems  of  farming  are 
yielding  excellent  profits  on  the  good  land.  Merely  be- 
cause some  one  cleared  land  and  built  a  house  on  it  is  not 
sufficient  reason  for  farming  it. 

The  same  principle  applies  in  the  choice  of  places  to 


INTENSIVE  AND   EXTENSIVE  FARMING         157 

plant  various  crops  on  the  individual  farm.  The  land  that 
it  will  not  pay  to  till  should  be  used  for  woods  or  pasture. 
Crops  that  require  much  labor  should  be  given  as  good  a 
soil  as  other  conditions  will  allow.  Suppose  that  one  is 
growing  a  young  orchard,  and  that  the  trees  will  damags 
an  intertilled  crop  by  one-fourth.  The  crop  planted  in  the 
orchard  should  be  the  least  costly  of  the  crops  that  will 
do.  Such  crops  as  strawberries  or  small  fruits  are  too  in- 
tensive to  grow  in  orchards  unless  land  is  very  limited.  The 
injury  to  these  crops  may  be  enough  to  pay  rent  on  addi- 
tional land  on  which  to  raise  them,  and  till  the  orchard 
besides. 

Again  the  same  principle  holds  in  using  fertilizers  or 
other  intensive  methods.  It  is  probably  as  easy  to  in- 
crease a  potato  or  apple  crop  by  20  per  cent  as  it  is  to 
increase  a  wheat  or  corn  crop  the  same  amount.  But 
the  increased  crop  of  corn  or  wheat  may  not  pay,  while  the 
same  percentage  increase  may  be  very  profitable  on  the 
higher  priced  crop.  For  this  reason,  the  most  extensive 
use  of  fertilizers  is  on  potatoes  and  truck  crops.  Very 
high  prices  for  the  general  farm  crops  accomplish  the 
same  result.  The  high  price  of  hay  near  eastern  cities 
often  makes  it  pay  to  fertilize  hay. 

INTENSIVE   vs.    EXTENSIVE    METHODS 

105.  How  large  crops  does  it  pay  to  grow?  —  Much 
better  crop  yields  may  be  secured  by  the  use  of  more  labor, 
more  fertilizers,  and  more  expense  in  general.  Just  how 
far  it  is  wise  to  go  in  this  respect  is  always  a  problem. 
Most  farmers  are  not  growing  as  large  crops  as  their  condi- 
tions warrant ;  some  are  growing  larger  crops  than  it  pays 
to  grow.     With  our  increasing  population,  it  pays  to  grad- 


158  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

ually  intensify  methods,  and  as  in  making  any  change,  the 
majority  do  not  advance  quite  so  rapidly  as  conditions 
warrant. 

With  the  revival  of  interest  in  country  life,  the  country 
is  being  flooded  with  advice  by  persons  who  know  little 
about  farming.  The  usual  theory  is  that  every  farmer 
ought  to  grow  two  or  three  times  the  yields  per  acre  that 
he  now  secures,  regardless  of  cost  or  profit.  Farmers  are 
usually  wise  enough  to  try  these  theories  cautiously. 

Such  advice  is  most  ruinous  to  the  intelligent  "  back-to- 
the-lander,"  who  is  usually  thoroughly  convinced  that  all 
he  has  to  do  to  insure  his  success  is  to  raise  a  larger  crop 
than  his  neighbors.  He  hopes  to  apply  scientific  methods 
and  show  his  neighbors  how  foolish  the  old  ways  are. 
Usually  his  science  is  only  that  of  increasing  the  yield. 
He  fails  to  count  the  cost.  No  method  is  scientific  that 
fails  to  count  the  cost.  A  little  more  intensive  methods 
will  pay  in  most  regions,  and  sometimes  a  complete  change 
is  needed.  But  farming  is  not  subject  to  such  violent 
changes  as  manufacturing,  because  the  climate  and  soil 
are  its  unchangeable  basis. 

This  idea  is  not  new.  It  is  expressed  by  the  farmer  who, 
while  viewing  the  enormous  crop  on  some  experimental 
grounds,  says  that  he  also  could  raise  such  a  crop  if  the 
railroad  or  state  would  pay  the  bills. 

The  same  idea  is  expressed  by  the  economist  when  he 
speaks  of  the  law  of  diminishing  returns.^ 

Cato  expressed  the  same  idea  when  he  said,  "  Know  that 
with  a  farm  as  with  a  man,  however  productive  it  may  be, 
if  it  has  the  spending  habit,  not  much  will  be  left  over." 

Pliny  expressed  it  better,  "  I  may  possibly  appear  guilty 

'Principles  of  Rural  Economics,  T.  N.  Carver,  pp.  118-119  and 
182-184. 


INTENSIVE  AND  EXTENSIVE  FARMING        159 

of  some  degree  of  rashness  in  making  mention  of  a  maxim 
of  the  ancients  which  will  very  probably  be  looked  upon 
as  quite  incredible,  '  that  nothing  is  so  disadvantageous 
as  to  cultivate  land  in  the  highest  style  of  perfection.'  "  ^ 
I  wish  again  to  call  attention  to  this  wise  maxim  of  the 
ancients,  and  I  presume  that  many  of  the  readers  still 
consider  this  law  as  quite  incredible. 

106.  Increased  production  due  to  natural  causes.  — 
Many  times  the  results  in  one  year  are  compared  with  the 
results  in  succeeding  years  with  different  methods.  If 
the  right  year  is  chosen,  we  may  expect  wonderful  results. 
f'or  with  the  same  methods,  the  weather  and  crop  pests 
may  show  differences  of  over  100  per  cent  on  succeeding 
years. 

A  more  frequent  source  of  error  is  the  comparison  of 
intensive  methods  on  good  soil  with  ordinary  methods 
on  ordinary  soil.  In  nearly  any  community  there  are 
soils  that  will  give  twice  the  yield  given  by  other  soils  of 
the  same  region. 

107.  Weather  risk  and  intensive  methods.  —  Just  how 
much  it  is  wise  to  spend  on  a  crop  is  largely  a  matter  of 
weather.  If  the  rainfall  limits  the  crop,  no  amount  of 
fertilizer  can  save  it.  On  the  contrary,  the  fertilizer  may 
result  in  very  serious  injury  in  dry  weather.  Because  of 
this  danger,  much  farm  manure  is  thrown  away  in  the  semi- 
arid  regions.  In  most  cases,  a  way  can  probably  be  found 
to  use  the  manure  to  a  profit  by  making  very  light  applica- 
tions with  a  manure  spreader,  particularly  as  a  top  dress- 
ing. 

It  may  be  shown  that  certain  methods  will  conserve 
moisture.  Such  methods  are  likely  to  be  used  in  semi-arid 
regions,  but  are  not  likely  to  be  adopted  in  humid  regions. 

•  Cato's  Farm  Management,  Translated  by  "A  Virginia  Farmer." 


160  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

In  the  semi-arid  n^gioii,  the  rewards  for  siieh  work  are 
fairly  sure,  ])eeause  the  (h'ought  is  sure.  But  in  regions  of 
more  rainfall,  such  methods  may  pay  in  one  year  in  three 
and  fail  in  all  the  other  years,  because  there  is  water 
enough  without  them.  On  th(>  occasional  year,  when  the 
extra  work  of  moisture  conservation  pays,  it  must  paj^  for 
the  intervening  years  when  it  was  not  needed. 

In  every  dry  year,  the  question  of  irrigation  for  the 
eastern  half  of  the  United  States  is  raised.  Many  at- 
tempts have  been  made  to  irrigate,  but  only  rarely  has  it 
paid.  Irrigation  in  humid  n^gions  is  likely  to  be  delayed 
too  long,  in  the  hope  of  rain.  Frequently,  it  is  followed  by 
a  rain,  so  that  there  is  injury  from  too  much  water.  The 
occasional  year  when  irrigation  pays,  must  pay  for  the 
intervening  years  when  irrigation  was  not  needed,  or  was 
a  positive  injury. 

There  are  some  farms  on  which  irrigation  of  market 
garden  crops  pays.  As  a  result  of  eleven  years'  test  of 
irrigation  at  the  New  Jersey  Experiment  Station  with 
asparagus,  blackberries,  raspberries,  currants,  and  goose- 
berries, the  conclusion  was  reached  that  on  no  crop  had 
irrigation  paid.^  As  the  population  increases,  the  ex- 
ceptional instances  of  success  with  irrigation  will  increase, 
but  will  never  be  numerous,  except  on  high-priced  crops. 
Overhead  irrigation  from  pipes  has  paid  on  high-priced 
crops  on  a  number  of  farms. 

108.  Business  interpretation  of  results  of  fertilizer 
tests.  —  The  use  of  fertilizers  has  increased  enormously. 
As  crops  rise  in  price,  their  use  is  certain  to  continue  to 
increase.  Many  farmers  would  make  more  money  if  they 
used  more  fertilizer,  but  a  farmer  needs  to  be  very  careful 
about  applying  the  results  that  he  reads  about  in  bulle- 

»  New  Jersey  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Report,  1900,  pp.  21S-220. 


INTENSIVE  AND  EXTENSIVE  FARMING         161 

tins.  The  facts  there  recorded  as  to  yields  may  be  ac- 
cepted, but  the  conclusions  as  to  profits  are  usually  absurd, 
because  the  difference  between  the  cost  of  fertilizer  and  the 
value  of  the  increased  crop  is  called  profit.  All  the  other 
costs,  such  as  interest,  crop  insurance,  hauling  and  apply- 
ing fertilizer,  harvesting,  storing,  and  marketing  the  in- 
creased crop  are  ignored.  The  primary  object  of  such 
experiments  is  to  determine  the  effect  of  any  particular 
treatment.  This  part  is  usually  well  done  and  is  of  great 
value  to  farmers.  The  business  interpretation  of  results  is 
very  poorly  done. 

The  same  point  applies  in  the  interpretation  of  results 
of  any  other  intensive  methods.  The  statement  that  it 
costs  no  more  to  handle  a  large  crop  than  a  small  one  is 
almost  universally  accepted  by  persons  who  have  never 
kept  any  accounts  of  such  work.  It  has  even  been  as- 
sumed that  it  costs  no  more  to  grow,  harvest,  store,  and 
sell  75  bushels  of  corn  per  acre  than  it  does  to  raise  31 
bushels.^  Any  conclusions  based  on  such  an  assumption 
are  worse  than  useless.  We  must  know  the  extra  cost  of 
growing  and  handling  the  larger  crop  before  we  can  tell 
how  large  a  crop  it  pays  to  grow.  There  is  a  limit  both 
ways  in  profitable  crop  production. 

When  the  writer  has  called  attention  to  the  extra  costs 
involved  in  handling  the  increased  crop,  at  meetings  of 
agronomists,  there  has  always  been  some  one  present  to  ob- 
ject to  assigning  any  value  to  the  farmer's  time,  on  the 
theory  that  the  farmer's  time  is  not  worth  anything  any- 
way, and  that  if  he  gives  a  cow  or  a  crop  $10  worth  of  feed 
or  fertilizer  and  gets  back  $11  he  has  made  a  fine  profit, 
even  if  $5  worth  of  extra  lal)or  does  have  to  be  ignored. 
In  the  first  place,  the  farmer's  time  is  worth  at  least  farm 

>  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Yearbook,  1911,  p.  326. 
M 


162 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


wages ;  if  not,  he  had  best  hire  out  to  a  neighbor  who  will 
pay  him  wages.  No  farmer  whose  time  is  so  used  as  to 
bring  little  or  no  return  for  his  labor,  is  likely  to  have  money 
enough  to  invest  in  improved  methods.  The  farmer  is 
interested  in  ways  of  earning  more  than  farm  wages.  He 
owes  no  thanks  to  any  one  who  persuades  him  to  adopt 
methods  that  do  not  pay  wages.  A  farmer  can  find  plenty 
of  ways  of  working  for  nothing  without  outside  aid. 

The  almost  universal  method  of  interpreting  fertilizer 
tests  is  shown  by  the  following  example  taken  from  the 
very  excellent  work  of  the  Ohio  Experiment  Station. 

Table  26.  —  Results  of  Second  Five  Years  in  a  Fertilizeu 
Trial  in  Ohio  ^ 


Treatment 

Cost  of 
Fertilizer 

Value  of 

Increased  Crops 

ABOVE  Cost  of 

Fertilizer 

Plot  2,  phosphorus       .... 

Plot  6,  nitrogen  and  phosphorus 

Plot  8,  phosphorus  and  potas- 
sium  

Plot  11,  nitrogen,  phosphorus, 
and  potassium 

$  2.40 
14.40 

8.90 

20.90 

S13.99 
19.29 

14.34 

19.64 

1  Ohio,  Bulletin  182,  pp.- 145  and  159. 


This  bulletin  follows  the  universal  error  and  calls  the 
last  column  profit.  The  conclusion  is  therefore  reached 
that  the  complete  fertilizer  used  on  plot  11  pays  best. 
But  the  $19. 64  is  not  profit.  Of  all  the  costs  involved, 
only  the  cash  cost  of  fertilizer  has  been  subtracted  from 
the  increased  value  of  the  crop. 

The  fertilizer  on  plot  2  cost  only  .$2.40,  while  that  on 
plot  1 1  cost  S20.90,  a  difference  of  $18.50.     The  increased 


INTENSIVE  AND   EXTENSIVE  FARMING         163 

crop  on  the  latter  plot  pays  this  and  leaves  $5.65  to  pay  for 
the  other  extra  costs.  This  must  pay  interest  on  S18.50, 
crop  insurance,  pay  for  hauling  and  applying  the  extra 
fertilizer,  and  for  harvesting,  storing,  and  marketing  the 
increased  crops  of  10  bushels  of  corn,  15  bushels  of  oats,  9 
bushels  of  wheat,  and  1785  pounds  of  hay.  The  farmer  is 
not  likely  to  find  any  one  who  is  willing  to  undertake  this 
contract  for  $5.65. 

Comparing  plots  2  and  6,  we  find  an  increased  cost  of  $12 
and  an  increased  return  above  cost  of  $5.30.  This  has  to 
pay  interest  on  $12,  crop  insurance,  pay  for  hauling  the 
extra  fertilizer,  and  for  harvesting  and  marketing. 

Certainly  plot  6  pays  better  than  plot  11,  for  there  is 
only  35  cents  to  pay  all  the  extra  costs  of  the  larger 
crop. 

Without  a  further  analysis  of  the  results,  we  would 
conclude  that  on  this  soil  and  under  these  conditions,  one 
should  use  nitrogen  and  phosphorus.  But  the  farmer 
who  is  short  of  money  will  spend  all  he  has  for  phosphorus, 
because  it  gives  a  phenomenal  return.  Most  farmers  who 
have  this  type  of  soil  are  short  of  money  and  most  of 
them  use  fertilizers  that  contain  little  but  phosphorus. 

It  is  probable  that  a  fertilizer  that  is  mostly  phosphorus, 
but  that  contains  a  little  nitrogen  and,  perhaps,  a  little 
potassium,  will  pay  best  on  this  soil.  This  is  the  experi- 
ence of  farmers  on  this  soil  in  New  York,  Pennsylvania, 
and  Ohio.  It  is  also  fairly  certain  that  a  little  heavier 
applications  than  the  farmer  commonly  uses  would  pay, 
if  the  farmer  has  the  necessary  money. 

109.  An  example  of  cost  accounts  in  the  use  of  fer- 
tilizers. —  Table  27  gives  the  results  from  a  set  of  cost  ac- 
counts in  growing  60  acres  of  timothy  hay  on  a  New  York 
farm.     The  increased  crop,  due  to  fertilizing,  was  about 


164  FABM  MANAGEMENT 

60  tons.     The  table  gives  a  close  approximation  to  the 
cost  of  producing  this  increased  crop. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  real  cost  of  the  fertilizer  on  this 
farm  is  $634,  not  $272.  In  this  case,  a  so-called  profit  of 
over  100  per  cent  by  the  usual  method  of  figuring  would 
really  be  a  loss,  because  the  fertilizer  is  less  than  half  the 
total  cost. 

Table  27.  —  Real  Cost  of  the  Increased  Crop  Due  to  Fer- 
tilizing 60  Acres  of  Timothy 

Cost  of  Fertilizer 

8000  pounds  nitrate  of  soda $185.00 

2080  pounds  muriate  of  potash     ....  39.77 

10354  pounds  of  acid  phosphate  ....  47.37     $272.14 

Other  Costs 

Freight  on  fertilizer 26.66 

39|  man  hours  hauling  fertilizer  at  21.6 f^    .  8.53 

58  horse  hours  hauling  fertilizer  at  13.2  fi    .  7.66 

29  man  hours  mixing  fertilizer      ....  6.26 

84}  man  hours  sowing  fertilizer    ....  18.25 

101 }  horse  hours  sowing  fertilizer      .     .     .  13.40 
200  man  hours  hauling  in  and  storing  60 

tons  hay 43.20 

160  horse  hours  hauling  in  60  tons  hay       .  21.12 

108  man  hours  pitching  hay  to  baler     .     .  23.33 

Meals  for  hay  pressers 14.40 

Meals  for  hay  pressers'  horses       ....  7.30 

118  man  hours  hauling  60  tons  to  railroad  25.49 

208  horse  hours  hauling  60  tons  to  railroad  27.46 

Use  of  barn  (proportionate  share)      .     .     .  95.00 

Fire  insurance  (proportionate  share)      .     .  3.00 

Interest  on  above  costs  for  7  mos.  .     6%  21.46     $362.52 

$634:66 


The  labor  costs  are  charged  at  the  average  cost  on  this 
farm  for  the  year  1911 ;  not  the  cash  paid  the  men  but  the 
real  cost  of  labor,  which  includes  wood,  milk,  use  of  house, 
etc.  Horse  labor  is  charged  at  cost,  13.2  cents  per  horse 
hour.     A  very  moderate  cost  for  a  New  York  farm. 

The  time  required  for  baling  and  hauling  hay,  barn  stor- 


INTENSIVE  AND  EXTENSIVE  FARMING        165 

ago  room,  and  fire  insurance  are  tlirectly  in  proportion 
to  the  crop  grown.  These  are  charged  at  the  average  cost 
per  ton  for  1911.  The  charge  for  hay  stcrage  is  low.  The 
use  of  fertilizers  on  this  farm  has  made  it  necessary  to 
baild  more  barns.  The  extra  time  of  cutting,  tedding, 
and  raking  the  larger  crop  and  additional  use  of  machinery 
has  not  been  counted.  The  time  to  load  and  haul  to  the 
l)arn  is  estimated  from  the  time  for  the  total  crop,  but  is 
very  close  to  correct.  The  farm  is  three  miles  from  the 
railroad  and  has  some  bad  hills,  but  over  two  tons  of  baled 
hay  is  hauled  per  load.  No  hay  loader  is  used,  but  other- 
wise work  is  economized.  The  charge  for  baling  of  $1.25 
per  ton  is  not  counted,  as  this  is  deducted  from  the  price 
when  selling. 

In  most  years,  the  60  tons  of  hay  from  this  farm  will 
sell  for  $900.  This  allows  a  profit  of  $265  from  fertilizing, 
not  a  profit  of  $628  that  would  be  indicated  by  usual 
methods  of  figuring. 

Vv' ith  hay  at  $10  per  ton,  there  would  be  a  loss  from  using 
fertilizers,  yet  by  the  experiment  station  method  of  figuring 
the  profit  would  be  over  100  per  cent. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  fertilizer  is  much  less  than  half 
the  total  cost.     The  costs  may  be  summarized  as  follows  : 

Fixed  costs,  fertilizer,  freight  on  fertilizer,  mixing  and 
applying  fertilizer,  interest  on  these  —  $365.25. 

Costs  directly  proportional  to  crop,  hauling  in,  storage, 
fire  insurance,  baling,  hauling  to  market,  interest  on  these 
—  $269.41,  or  $4.49  per  ton. 

We  can  then  determine  approximately  what  increases 
and  prices  are  necessary  for  profit  on  this  farm.  With 
an  increase  of  half  a  ton  per  acre  from  the  treatment,  the 
fixed  costs  are  $365  and  the  variable  costs  $135.  The 
30  tons  of  hay  would  have  to  bring  about  $16.66  per  ton 


166 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


to  pay  the  cost.     This  would  not  he  a  very  attractive  in- 
vestment with  hay  at  less  than  S18  to  $20. 

In  some  extra  good  years,  this  treatment  on  this  farm 
may  give  an  increase  of  1|  tons  per  acre.  The  fixed  costs 
would  then  be  $365  and  the  variable  cost  $404.  The  cost 
of  the  90  tons  of  hay  would  be  $8.55  per  ton. 


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Fig.  51.  —  An  irrigated  pear  orchard  in  Colorado.     The  high  cost  of  irri- 
gation and  transportation  makes  very  intensive  methods  most  profitable. 

We  find  that  the  increased  crop  costs  approximately 
$16.83  per  ton  if  the  increase  is  one-half  ton,  $10.58  per  ton 
if  the  increase  is  one  ton,  and  $8.55  if  the  increase  is  one 
and  one-half  tons.  Farmers  in  New  York  often  grow  hay 
by  ordinary  methods  at  a  cost  of  $6  per  ton.  These  results 
may  suggest  the  reason  why  farmers  are  so  slow  to  take  up 
the  fertilizing  of  hay.  If  one  can  grow  more  acres  by  or- 
dinary methods,  he  may  do  as  well  or  better  than  by  spend- 
ing his  limited  capital  for  fertilizer.  If  he  cannot  buy  or 
rent  more  land  or  if  he  has  plenty  of  money,  he  may  use 
fertilizers.  When  land  becomes  worth  more  it  will  pay  to 
be  more  saving  of  it. 

The  farmer  who  kept  these  cost  accounts  considers  that 


INTENSIVE  AND  EXTENSIVE  FARMING         167 

it  pays  to  fertilize  hay  on  his  farm.  He  has  followed  the 
practice  for  some  years  and  expects  to  continue,  but  does 
not  think  that  there  is  any  very  high  profit  when  the  risk 
and  the  new  barns  are  all  considered. 

These  results  are,  of  course,  given  to  show  a  method  of 
business  study  and  not  to  give  a  discussion  of  fertilizing 
hay.  The  additional  cost  in  fertilizing  some  other  crops, 
such  as  oats  and  wheat,  are  usually  less. 

110.  Crop  yields  on  successful  farms.  —  Farms  that 
secure  large  yields  per  acre  often  fail  to  make  a  good  profit. 
Efficient  management  will  bring  fairly  good  profits  with 
ordinary  production,  but  the  highest  profits  come  from  a 
combination  of  efficiency  and  good  production. 

Of  1317  farms  in  one  county  in  New  York,  13  made  labor 
incomes  of  over  $2000.  The  crop  yields  on  these  farms 
averaged  27  per  cent  better  than  the  average  for  the  re- 
gion. Part  of  this  difference  was  due  to  the  soils  being 
better  than  the  average,  and  part  was  due  to  better  farm- 
ing. The  average  yield  of  hay  on  all  farms  was  1.3  tons  ; 
the  most  profitable  farms  averaged  1.6  tons.  The  average 
yield  of  oats  was  33  bushels.  The  most  profitable  farms 
averaged  43  bushels.  The  potato  yields  on  the  most 
profitable  farms  averaged  219  bushels.  Some  farms  se- 
cured much  higher  yields  than  these,  but  not  higher  profits. 
Twelve  farmers,  whose  labor  incomes  were  between  $1500 
and  $2000,  had  crop  yields  34  per  cent  above  the  average, 
so  that  their  crops  were  better  than  the  crops  on  the  most 
successful  farms. ^ 

In  five  townships  in  Livingston  County,  New  York,  there 
were  19  farmers  out  of  671  who  made  labor  incomes  of 
over  $2500.  On  6  of  these  farms,  the  crop  yields  were 
Im'Iow  tlu'  average,  but  the  crops  on  the  19  farms  averag(H] 

1  New  York,  Coruoll  Bullctiu  295,  pp.  524  aud  529. 


lt)»  FAIiM  MANAGEMENT 

18  per  cent  above  those  of  the  region.  The  average  yields 
for  the  region  were:  hay  1.4  tons,  oats  41  bushels,  wheat 

19  bushels,  beans  16  bushels,  potatoes  106  bushels.  The 
most  successful  farms  secured  nearly  one-fifth  larger  yields. 
If  one  were  to  compare  the  yields  on  these  most  successful 
farms  with  the  average  of  the  state,  the  difference  would  be 
greater,  because  the  soils  in  this  region  are  much  better 
than  the  average  of  the  state.  By  comparing  with  the 
neighbors  in  the  same  year,  we  see  how  much  of  the  larger 
yield  is  due  to  better  methods  or  better  soil  than  the 
neighbors  have. 

Something  more  than  large  crop  yields  is  necessary  for 
large  profits.  There  were  69  farmers  in  this  region 
whose  crops  were  over  25  per  cent  above  the  average ; 
28  of  these  farmers  failed  to  make  even  average  labor  in- 
comes, and  only  29,  or  42  per  cent,  made  labor  incomes 
of  over  SIOOO. 

If  we  are  to  use  only  one  measure  of  efficiency,  size  is 
more  important  than  quality.  There  were  112  farms  of 
over  200  acres ;  54  of  these,  or  48  per  cent,  made  labor 
incomes  of  over  SIOOO. 

When  both  quality  and  size  of  business  are  combined, 
the  chances  of  success  are  much  improved.  There  were 
25  farms  of  over  200  acres  on  which  the  crop  yields  were 
over  15  per  cent  above  the  average  ;  17  of  these  gave  labor 
incomes  of  over  $1000.  If  we  included  the  additional 
qualification  that  the  animals  kept  be  fairly  productive, 
nearl}'  all  of  the  farms  left  would  be  highly  profitable. 

Of  the  eight  larg(>  farms  tiiat  failed  to  give  a  labor  income 
of  $1000,  seven  failed  because  after  having  grown  the  good 
crops,  they  fed  them  to  animals  that  failed  to  pay,  either 
because  of  poor  quality  of  animals  or  wrong  kinds  of 
products. 


INTENSIVE!  AND  EXTENSIVE  FARMING        169 

One  man  had  crops  a  third  l^etter  than  the  average,  and 
secured  a  production  per  cow  of  double  the  average,  but  at 
a  labor  and  feed  cost  that  was  too  great.  His  farm  would 
have  paid  much  better,  had  he  discharged  half  his  men  and 
fed  his  cows  less.  Of  the  18  men  who  had  farms  of  200 
acres  or  more,  and  who  secured  good  crops  and  good  pro- 
duction per  animal,  he  was  the  only  one  who  failed  to 
make  a  labor  income  of  $1000.  The  other  17  averaged 
$2352. 

In  five  townships  in  Jefferson  County,  New  York,  there 
were  17  farms  out  of  670  that  gave  a  labor  income  of  over 
$2000.  On  three  of  these,  the  crop  yields  were  below 
the  average.  The  crops  on  the  17  farms  averaged  one- 
fifth  above  the  average  of  the  region.  Again,  this  differ- 
ence was  partly  due  to  better  soil  and  partly  to  better 
management.  These  same  farms  were  three-fifths  larger 
than  the  average  farm. 

111.  Comparative  importance  of  production  and  size  of 
business.  —  In  Jefferson  County,  the  average  labor  income 
was  $609.  The  97  farms  with  the  best  crop  yields  (crops 
32  per  cent  or  more  above  the  average)  made  an  average 
labor  income  of  $684.  Twenty-three  were  above  $1000, 
but  51,  or  over  half,  failed  to  make  average  labor  incomes. 
Crop  yields  alone  are  important  but  do  not  seem  to  have 
a  controlling  influence  on  profits. 

The  97  farms  with  the  largest  receipts  per  cow  from  milk 
and  butter  ($84  or  more)  made  an  average  labor  income  of 
$968.     Forty  of  these  were  above  $1000. 

The  97  largest  farms  (224  or  more  acres)  made  an 
average  labor  income  of  $898.  Forty-two  of  these  were 
above  $1000. 

The  chief  products  sold  in  this  county  are  milk  and  hay. 
Some  oats,  potatoes,  eggs,  pure-bred  cattle,  and  other 


170 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


products  are  sold.  Hay,  silage,  and  oats  are  raised  to  feed. 
In  this  region,  which  depends  primarily  on  dairying,  the 
production  per  cow  and  size  of  farm  are  the  most  important 
factors  affecting  profits.  The  crop  yields  are  important, 
but  are  not  as  important  as  either  the  cows  or  the  size  of 
the  business.  In  a  region  where  crops  are  more  important, 
the  yield  per  acre  has  more  effect  on  profits. 

Table  28.  Comparative  Importance  of  Production,  Size  of 
Business  and  Diversification,  Jefferson  County,  New 
York 


Average  Labor 
Income 


Average  of  670  farms   .     . 

97  farms  with  highest  crop 
yields 

97  farms  with  highest  re- 
ceipts per  cow  .... 

97  largest  farms   .... 

23  farms  in  the  class  with 
best  crops  and  best  cows 

71  large  (over  200  acres) 
and  diversified  farms    . 

31  large  farms  (over  200 
acres)  with  crops  and 
cows  as  good  or  better 
than  the  average  .     .     . 

13  large  diversified  farms 
with  crops  and  cows  as 
good  or  better  than  the 
average    


S609 

684 

968 
898 

994 

1044 

1567 
1968 


Number  Making 

Labor  Incomes 

Above  $  1000 


145 

23 

40 
42 

9 

33 

27 
13 


Per  Cent 

Making 

Over  $1000 


22 

24 

41 
43 

39 

46 

87 
100 


The  combination  of  large  crop  yields  and  high-producing 
cows  is  better  than  either  one  alone.  There  were  23  farms 
that  came  both  in  the  class  of  high-crop  yields  and  high 
production  per  cow.  The  average  labor  income  on  these 
farms  was  $994.     Nine  were  above  $1000.     But  even  with 


INTENSIVE  AND   EXTENSIVE  FARMING         171 

this  comljiiiation  of  good  cows  and  good  crops,  9  failed 
to  make  labor  incomes  as  good  as  the  average.  These 
were  small  farms. 

112.  Comparative  importance  of  yields  and  size  and 
diversity  of  business.  —  The  combination  of  size  of 
business  and  diversity  is  even  more  important  than  high 
production.  It  appears  that  the  reduction  in  cost  by 
having  a  business  large  enough  and  diversified  enough  to 
keep  men,  horses,  and  machinery  busy  is  greater  than  the 
reduction  in  cost  that  comes  from  high  yields  of  crops 
and  production  of  animals.  There  were  71  farms  of  over 
200  acres  that  derived  over  20  per  cent  of  their  receipts 
from  crops.  The  labor  income  on  these  farms  averaged 
$1044.     Thirty-three  were  above  SIOOO. 

A  farm  ought  to  have  crop  yields  and  cows  as  good  or 
better  than  the  average.  This  means  receipts  per  cow 
of  $59  or  more  from  milk  and  butter.  There  were  31 
farms  of  over  200  acres  that  secured  crop  yields  as  good  or 
better  than  the  average  and  that  also  had  cows  as  good  or 
better  than  the  average.  The  average  labor  income  on 
these  farms  was  $1567. 

If  we  add  the  further  qualification  that  the  farms  shall 
be  diversified,  the  profits  are  still  larger.  There  were  13 
of  these  large  farms  with  production  as  good  or  better  than 
the  average  that  derived  over  20  per  cent  of  their  receipts 
from  crops.  The  average  labor  income  on  these  farms  was 
$1968.     The  lowest  was  $1093. 

The  importance  of  high  production  has  long  been  em- 
phasized, but  it  appears  that  a  size  of  business  and  type 
of  farming  that  provide  full  work  for  labor  and  equipment 
are  even  more  important  than  high  production.  The 
largest  profits  come  when  good  production  is  combined  with 
the  proper  size  of  farm  and  type  of  farming. 


172  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

It  appears  that  the  average  farming  of  any  community 
is  not  quite  as  intensive  as  conditions  warrant.  It  pays  to 
use  methods  that  will  secure  a  little  better  crop  than  the 
average,  but  farmers  are  not  so  foolish  as  to  be  100  per 
cent  out  of  adjustment  to  their  conditions,  as  is  assumed 
when  it  is  said  that  they  ought  to  secure  double  the  present 
yields  on  any  given  soil. 

113.  Raising  the  maximum  yield  of  potatoes.  —  An 
intensive  potato  farm  has  attracted  considerable  attention.^ 
The  farmer  has  laid  10  miles  of  tile  drain  on  his  57-acre 
farm.  His  average  yield  of  potatoes  for  the  last  nine  years 
reported  was  282  bushels.     One  year  it  was  417  bushels. 

The  average  receipts  for  the  first  nine  years  were  $214 
above  farm  expenses.  This  represents  the  pay  for  the 
owner's  work  and  interest  on  capital,  or  the  amount  that 
the  family  had  to  live  on  and  pay  interest,  but  the  farm 
increased  in  value  during  this  time.  For  the  second  nine 
years,  the  average  receipts  were  $2786  and  the  farm  ex- 
penses $1775.  This  leaves  $1011  per  year  as  pay  for  the 
use  of  capital  and  owner's  labor.  Half  of  this  was  earned 
by  the  $10,000  capital.  The  other  half  represents  pay 
for  the  farmer's  labor,  or  his  labor  income.  This  is  a  little 
lower  than  the  average  for  the  neighboring  townships  in 
Livingston  County.  One  in  every  twenty-five  of  the 
farmers  in  this  region  made  over  $2500. 

The  farm  is  a  little  over  one-third  as  large,  but  the  capital 
is  as  large  as  the  average  in  the  region.  The  same  energy 
would  undoubtedly  have  brought  at  least  double  the  profit, 
if  expended  in  farming  by  the  usual  methods  of  the  region. 
The  high  yields  attracted  so  much  attention  that  one  of 
the  great  railroads  hired  the  owner  to  manage  demonstra- 
tion farms.  Naturally,  the  farmers  who  have  watghed  the 
1  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers'  Bulletin  454. 


INTENSIVE  AND  EXTENSIVE   FARMING         173 

expenses  of  the  railroad  farms  have  been  slow  to  accept  the 
so-called  scientific  methods.  They  have,  however,  been 
helped  in  some  details  of  potato  production. 

The  farmer  who  has  accomplished  these  results  deserves 
the  utmost  respect.  He  has  shown  great  originality 
and  has  shown  what  high  yields  can  be  secured.  They 
have  another  value  in  showing  us  what  possibilities  we 
have  for  the  future,  when  conditions  may  possibly  warrant 
more  intensive  methods.  We  need  not  be  alarmed  as  to 
how  we  shall  be  fed  in  the  future.  It  is  always  desirable 
to  have  such  experiments,  just  as  it  is  desirable  to  have 
experiments  with  aeroplanes.  But  to  exploit  such 
methods  as  an  example  for  farmers  to  follow  is  as  foolish 
as  it  would  be  for  a  farmers'  society  to  try  to  demonstrate 
to  the  railroad  that  it  could  secure  more  business  if  a  nice 
passenger  station  were  built  at  every  crossroad.  The 
increased  returns  are  easy  to  secure,  but  an  increased 
profit  is  a  different  matter.  Probably  farmers,  as  well  as 
railroads,  can  make  more  by  a  little  more  intensive  methods, 
but  not  by  trying  to  secure  maximum  crops. 

INTENSIVE    AND    EXTENSIVE    METHODS    OF   DAIRYING 

114.  Adaptation  to  conditions.  —  What  intensive  meth- 
ods it  will  pay  to  use  in  dairying  depends  on  many 
factors,  chief  among  which  are  the  relative  prices  of  feed, 
labor,  and  milk.  Near  some  of  the  large  cities  in  Germany 
very  intensive  methods  pay  best.  Land,  feed,  and  milk 
are  high  in  price,  and  labor  is  cheap.  Under  such  condi- 
tions the  problem  is  largely  one  of  getting  the  greatest 
am(junt  of  feed  from  an  acre.  The  soiling  system  is  then 
used.  All  the  feed  is  cut  and  carried  to  the  cows,  because 
in  this  way  more  stock  can  be  kept  on  a  given  area.     In 


174  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

northern  Minnesota  we  have  the  other  extreme.  Labor 
is  high,  and  feed,  land,  and  milk  are  very  cheap.  Here 
the  cows  run  out  much  of  the  year  and  pasture  on  prairie 
grass  in  summer  and  corn  stalks  in  winter.  No  attempt 
is  made  to  secure  very  high  production  per  cow.  Between 
these  extremes  we  have  all  degrees  of  variation.  The 
intensive  method  is  as  much  out  of  place  in  Minnesota  as 
the  Minnesota  method  would  be  in  Germany. 

The  least  intensive  method  of  dairying  is  to  produce 
most  of  the  product  in  summer  on  pasture  and  carry  the 
cows  over  winter  on  hay  and  cheap  roughage.  This  is 
the  practice  in  Holland  and  in  the  parts  of  New  York  and 
Wisconsin  where  cheese  is  produced.  It  is  better  economy 
to  produce  the  cheese  on  cheap  feed  and  store  it  than  it  is 
to  try  to  produce  it  on  high-priced  winter  feed.  The  same 
practice  is  followed  to  some  extent  with  butter  making, 
but  a  larger  proportion  of  the  butter  supply  is  made  in 
winter  because  it  is  less  easily  stored, 

A  more  intensive  method  of  dairying  is  to  feed  hay  and 
grain  in  the  winter  so  as  to  get  some  production  during 
this  season.  This  is  justified  when  butter  or  milk  brings 
a  fair  price.  This  is  the  common  practice  of  the  majority 
of  dairymen  in  America. 

A  still  more  intensive  method  adds  corn  silage  and  in- 
creases the  grain.  This  is  the  usual  method  followed  by 
dairymen  who  have  fairly  large  herds  and  who  are  near 
enough  cities  to  get  a  good  price  for  milk.  Silos  are  not 
often  used  with  less  than  10  to  20  cows. 

With  all  of  the  al)ove  methods,  summer  pasture  is  ustkI 
as  far  as  possible.  When  land  becomes  very  scarce  and 
milk  very  high  in  price,  the  pasture  is  replaced  by  a  soihng 
system.  Farm(TS  in  the  very  edg(^  of  cities  are  the  only 
ones  that  often  find  this  profitable  in  America. 


INTENSIVE  AND  EXTENSIVE  FAIiMiNG        175 

Table  29  gives  an  interesting  comparison  of  the  five- 
year  average  results  for  a  dairy  herd  in  Connecticut  with 
the  results  of  cost  accounts  on  27  farms  in  Minnesota. 
The  cows  in  Connecticut  were  fed  nearly  three  times  as 
much  grain  as  those  in  Minnesota.      They  were  fed  a 

Table  29. —  Comparison  of  Average  Costs  of  Production 
OP  Milk  on  some  Minnesota  Farms  and  on  a  Connect- 
icut Farm  ^ 


Connecticut 


Pounds  of  grain 

Pounds  of  hay 

Pounds  of  silage 

Days  of  pasture 

Pounds  of  milk  produced  per 

cow         

Pounds  of  butter  (8.5  per  cent 

fat) 

Cost  of  feed 

Other  costs 

Total  cost 

Value  of  product  plus  $1.5  for 

calf  and  manure       .... 
Value  of  product,  milk  4i*  qt. 

calf  and  manure  $  15    . 

Gain 

Loss 


2525 

2284 

8727 

133 

6379 

324 

$84 

65 

149 


133 


16 


1  Minnesota,  Bulletin  124,  and  Connecticut,  Bulletin  73. 

2  Includes  some  stover,  fodder,  and  a  little  silage. 


little  more  roughage,  but  were  pastured  less.  The  more 
intensive  methods  in  the  East  are  further  indicated  by  the 
fact  that  the  other  costs  aside  from  feed  are  over  twice 
as  much,  and  are  finally  shown  in  the  production  of  61  per 
cent  more  butter  per  cow.  The  milk  was  counted  at  4  cents 
a  (juart  in  Connecticut.  The  average  prices  received  in 
Minnesota  were  2.4  cents  for  milk  and  22  cents  for  butter. 


176  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

The  herd  in  Connecticut  failed  to  pay.  If  we  assign 
the  same  vakies  to  the  manure  and  calf  in  Minnesota  as 
was  done  in  Connecticut,  then  the  Minnesota  herds  gave 
a  profit  of  $8  per  cow.  Or,  expressed  another  way,  the 
manure  and  calf  had  to  be  worth  $7  to  come  out  even  in 
Minnesota,  and  $31  in  "Connecticut. 

If  the  C'onnecticut  herd  had  paid  Minnesota  prices  for 
feed  and  received  Minnesota  prices  for  the  product,  the 
milk  would  have  becni  worth  $72  per  cow.  The  feed  would 
hav(^  cost  $43,  or  about  one-half  as  much  as  it  did  in 
Connecticut.  The  other  expenses  would  have  been  only 
slightly  reduced,  provided  the  same  methods  had  been 
used.  The  calf  and  manure  would  then  have  to  be  worth 
about  $50  to  come  out  even.^  But  the  Minnesota  farmer, 
with  his  apparently  slipshod  methods,  has  secured  the 
calf  and  manure  for  $7.  It  appears  absolutely  certain  that 
as  intensive  methods  as  are  used  in  Connecticut  would 
not  pay  in  Minnesota.  Possibly  the  methods  are  a  Uttle 
too  intensive,  even  for  Connecticut.  On  the  other  hand,  it 
is  probable  that  the  profits  in  Minnesota  might  be  increased 
by  a  reasonable  increase  in  inteasity  of  the  business. 

If  the  cows  in  Minnesota  had  paid  Connecticut  prices 
for  feed  and  received  Connecticut  prices  for  milk,  the  feed 
would  have  cost  something  less  than  $63  per  cow,  and  the 
milk  would  have  been  worth  $84  per  cow.  The  profit 
would  have  remained  practically  unchanged.  A  few  of 
the  other  charges  would  have  been  greater.  It  is  also 
probable  that  the  milk  inspectors  would  refuse  to  take 
the  milk,  if  these  methods  were  used  in  Connecticut. 

'  Feed  values  in  Minnesota  averaged  $4.92  per  ton  for  hay,  $1.71  for 
silage,  about  $20  for  grain,  and  8.3  cents  a  month  for  pasture.  In  Con- 
necticut, hay  averaged  $16,  silage  $4,  grain  $30  per  ton,  and  pasture  $10 
for  the  year. 


INTENSIVE  AND  EXTENSIVE  FARMING        177 

115.  The  soiling  system.  Keeping  the  greatest  num- 
ber of  cows  per  acre.  —  The  farmer  has  been  repeatedly 
shown  that  he  can  keep  more  cows  per  acre  by  a  soiHng 
system,  that  is,  if  green  feed  is  cut  and  brought  to  the 
cows,  rather. than  use  a  pasture,  but  few  farmers  have 
adopted  this  method.  The  farmer  is  concerned  with 
profit  for  a  year's  work,  not  with  entertaining  the  greatest 
possible  number  of  cows.  A  soiling  system  is  feasible  in 
Europe,  where  labor  is  cheap  and  land  very  expensive ; 
it  is  not  feasible  in  America,  except  on  a  very  few  farms 
with  entirely  unusual  conditions.  A  description  of  one  of 
these  farms,  that  has  been  published  as  a  Farmers'  Bulle- 
tin, is  in  great  demand.^ 

The  farmer  had  15  acres  of  land  near  a  large  city  in 
Pennsylvania  and  by  a  soiling  system  raised  all  the 
roughage  for  30  head  of  stock,  17  of  which  were  cows  in 
milk.  The  milk  was  sold  to  a  state  institution  two  miles 
from  the  farm  at  the  wholesale  price  of  25  cents  a  gallon 
the  year  around.  This  was  at  a  time  when  farmers  in 
the  state  were  usually  getting  about  8  to  12  cents  a  gallon. 
The  milk  was  unusually  high  in  fat,  but  the  price  was 
equivalent  to  50  cents  a  pound  for  butter  fat.  The  value 
of  the  land  is  not  given,  but  it  was  mortgaged  for  $480 
per  acre.  At  this  time,  good  land  for  dairy  purposes  in 
the  state  could  have  been  bought  for  $50  and  rarely  sold 
for  as  much  as  SlOO  per  acre.  With  more  than  double  the 
usual  price  of  milk  and  with  land  worth  ten  times  as  much 
as  that  on  most  dairy  farms,  a  soiling  system  was  the  only 
logical  sj^stem.  The  owner  developed  a  city-lot  type  of 
farming  excellently  adapted  to  his  conditions,  but  absolutely 
out  of  place  on  farms  that  sell  milk  at  usual  prices.  If  he 
had  sold  his  milk  at  usual  prices,  he  would  have  lost  money. 

1  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers'  Bulletia  242. 

N 


178  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

Unfortunately,  the  bulletin  was  called,  "  An  Example  of 
Model  Farming,"  and  many  persons  have  thought  that 
this  furnished  a  model  for  farmers  who  sell  milk  at  2  to 
3  cents  a  quart  instead  of  o\  cents.  Because  of  his 
success  under  these  very  unusual  conditions,  this  farmer 
sold  his  farm  for  a  high  price  and  was  hired  at  a  high 
salary  as  manager  of  another  farm.  Here  the  attempt  to 
establish  a  similar  system  resulted  in  a  very  heavy  loss 
for  his  employer. 

There  is  not  sufficient  data  given  in  the  bulletin  to 
calculate  a  labor  income,  but  it  appears  to  be  less  than 
$1000,  —  a  good  labor  income,  but  not  large.  It  is  interest- 
ing to  compare  this  with  the  results  obtained  by  many 
other  farmers;  the  one  on  page  537  is  typical.  This 
farmer  made  a  labor  income  of  $3414 ;  the  year  before  it 
was  $2750.  With  about  the  same  capital  that  was  in- 
vested in  the  intensive  farm,  he  made  three  times  the 
labor  income.  This  farmer  kept  a  cow  for  each  seven 
acres  rather  than  a  cow  to  the  acre.  He  sold  milk  for  an 
average  of  2.7  cents  a  quart  rather  than  6|  cents.  In- 
stead of  spending  any  time  hauling  green  crops  to  the 
barn,  he  raised  cash  crops  for  sale,  while  the  cows  were 
in  the  pasture  gathering  their  own  crops  and  distribut- 
ing the  manure.  Each  farmer  followed  the  method  best 
adapted  to  his  conditions.  There  are  thousands  of  men 
who  are  succeeding  by  usual  methods  for  every  one  that 
is  succeeding  by  the  soiling  system. 

The  amount  of  labor  involved  in  hauling  green  crops, 
that  are  mostly  water,  and  in  hauling  out  manure  is 
enormous.  At  the  New  Jersey  Experiment  Station  the 
equivalent  of  50  cows  were  kept  for  G  months  on  various 
soiling  crops.  During  this  time  278  tons  of  green  crops 
were  cut  and  hauled  to  the  barn,  and  probably  over  300 


INTENSIVE  AND  EXTENSIVE  FARMING         179 

tons  of  manure  were  hauled  back  to  the  fields.^  The  labor 
of  hauling  the  feed  and  manure,  to  say  nothing  of  the  cost 
of  growing  the  crops,  would  more  than  pay  the  pasture 
bill  on  most  dairy  farms.  It  is  evident  that  land  and 
milk  must  be  very  high  in  price,  before  a  soiling  system 
will  pay. 

A  less  intensive  system  that  pays  on  most  dairy  farms 
is  to  have  enough  corn  silage  to  supplement  the  pasture 
at  times  when  the  pasture  is  poor.  But  even  this  is  too 
intensive  a  system  in  the  newer  regions  and  far  from  cities. 
In  Minnesota,  it  was  found  that  $1  expended  for  labor 
and  other  costs  of  production  of  a  hay  crop  gave  a  product 
with  a  feeding  value  of  $2.21.  For  the  same  cost,  fodder 
corn  gave  $1.38,  silage  $.98,  and  mangels  $.79.  The  last 
two  failed  to  pay  the  cost  of  production.^ 

In  some  parts  of  Europe,  and  occasionally  in  the  edge 
of  large  cities  in  America,  it  pays  to  follow  a  soiling  system 
in  the  summer,  with  silage  or  roots  for  winter.  In  the 
Eastern  States,  and  near  cities  in  other  states,  it  generally 
pay.5  a  farmer,  who  has  10  or  more  cows,  to  pasture  in 
summer  and  feed  corn  silage  and  hay  in  winter.  Farther 
west,  where  hay  is  choaper,  the  silo  is  less  profitable.  In 
some  sections  it  has  not  yet  proved  its  worth.  Root 
crops  rarely  pay  in  America,  except  when  one  is  making 
advanced  registry  records,  or  under  some  other  unusual 
conditions.  Sometimes  it  pays  to  have  a  small  amount 
of  roots  to  furnish  a  succulent  feed,  if  the  herd  is  too 
small  to  justify  one  in  having  a  silo. 

The  farmer's  problem  is  to  intensify  his  business  up  to 
the  point  of  greatest  profit  for  his  conditions.  Since  con- 
ditions are  gradually  changing  ifi  favor  of  more  intensive 

•  E.  B.  Voorhoes,  Forage  Crops,  p.  35. 

*  Minuesota,  Bulletin  117,  p.  31. 


180  FAEM  MANAGEMENT 

methods ;  and  since  there  is  a  tendency  for  the  average 
person  to  lag  behind,  it  follows  that  a  little  more  inten- 
sive methods  than  the  average  of  the  community  will 
usually  be  best.     (See  also  pages  181  to  182.) 

116.  Receipts  per  cow  and  profits.  —  In  Tompkins 
County,  New  York,  the  12  most  profitable  farms  out  of 
1317  received  48  per  cent  better  returns  per  cow  than 
the  average  of  the  region.  They  purchased  89  per  cent 
more  grain  feed  per  cow  than  the  average.  Those  who 
kept  sheep  secured  returns  per  ewe  83  per  cent  above  the 
average.^ 

In  Jefferson  County,  New  York,  there  were  17  farms 
out  of  670  that  made  labor  incomes  of  over  $2000.  The 
average  receipts  from  milk  and  its  products  were  $59  per 
cow  on  all  farms,  and  $92,  or  56  per  cent,  more,  on  these 
most  successful  farms.  The  receipts  from  stock  sold 
above  purchases  averaged  $14  per  cow  on  all  farms,  and 
$11  on  the  most  successful  farms. 

By  comparing  with  the  crop  yields  on  these  farms 
(page  167),  it  will  be  seen  that  the  production  of  the 
animals  exceeds  the  average  by  very  much  more  than 
does  the  production  of  crops.  The  factors  that  determine 
crop  production  are  much  less  under  control  than  are  the 
factors  that  affect  animal  production.  If  one  does  his 
part  for  a  half  better  crop  yield  than  the  average  under 
his  conditions,  he  is  not  at  all  sure  of  getting  this  yield, 
because  the  weather  may  limit  the  crop.  But  if  one  does 
his  part  for  a  half  better  production  from  animals,  he  is 
fairly  sure  of  corresponding  returns.  (See  also  pages  169 
to  171.) 

1  New  York,  Cornell  Bulletin  295,  p.  525. 


INTENSIVE  AND  EXTENSIVE  FABMING        181 


INTENSIVE    METHODS    SHOULD    BE    PROPERLY    BALANCED 

117.  Profits  limited  by  the  weakest  point. — There 
is  no  use  in  using  a  heavy  fertilizer  treatment,  if  the  rain- 
fall or  tillage  is  not  in  proportion,  neither  does  it  pay  to 
give  the  same  attention  to  common  stock  that  should  be 


Fig.  52.  —  Profits  depend  on  many  factors.     They  cannot  rise  above 
the  limits  set  by  the  weakest  point  in  the  system. 

given  to  pure-breds.  The  false  statement  is  often  made 
that  it  costs  no  more  to  keep  pure-bred  stock  than  it 
does  to  keep  grades.  It  takes  more  capital,  more  feed, 
and  more  care,  if  the  business  is  to  be  made  to  pay.  It  is 
foolish  to  keep  pure-bred  stock  and  give  it  no  better  care 
than  is  given  to  common  stock.  This  sort  of  a  relation- 
ship should  i'un  throughout  the  farm  business.  One  can- 
not afford  to  get  the  best  machinery  and  continue  to  use 


182  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

cheap,  weak  horses.  If  he  has  ^ood  machinery  and  good 
horses,  he  cannot  afford  to  use  inefficient  men.  It  re- 
quires experience  and  good  judgment  to  keep  somewhere 
near  to  the  proper  adjustment  of  all  the  factors  of  pro- 
duction. No  farmer  ever  keeps  all  these  factors  just 
right.  Figure  52  illustrates  this  point.  The  profits 
cannot  rise  above  the  limiting  factor.  Methods  should 
l)e  intensified  with  uniformity  in  attention  to  all  the 
limiting  factors.  Whenever  one  point  is  improved,  it  is 
likely  to  call  for  improvement  in  other  lines.  -In  most 
regions  it  pays  to  spray  apple  trees.  But  after  going  to 
the  expense  of  spraying,  one  cannot  afford  to  neglect 
some  other  point  —  as  tillage  or  pruning.  After  one  has 
fed  his  cows  more,  he  needs  to  be  sure  that  he  gives  the 
care  that  should  go  with  the  larger  feed. 

References 

Principles  of  Rural  Economics,  T.  N.  Carver,  pp.  117-202. 
Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  L.  H.  Bailey,  Vol.  IV.  pp. 

94-96. 
Agricultural  Economies,  H.  C.  Taylor,  pp.  88-116. 


CHAPTER  5 
MAINTAINING    THE    FERTILITY    OF   THE    LAND 

No  system  of  farming  can  be  considered  entirely  satis- 
factory that  does  not  maintain  the  fertihty  of  the  land. 
In  periods  of  low  prices,  it  is  sometimes  necessary  for  the 
farmer  to  neglect  the  future  in  order  to  make  a  living  in 
the  present.  It  is  also  sometimes  necessary  for  a  man 
who  is  heavily  in  debt  to  follow  methods  that  he  will 
change  when  he  reduces  the  debt  to  a  safe  Hmit.  But,  in 
general,  we  desire  types  of  farming  that  will  maintain 
crop  yields,  and,  as  prices  and  land  values  increase,  it 
becomes  desirable  to  increase  yields  beyond  what  they 
were  on  the  virgin  soil. 

118.  Are  our  crop  yields  decreasing?  —  Somebody 
started  the  story  that  our  crop  yields  are  decreasing.  It 
has  been  repeated  so  many  times  that  it  is  now  accepted 
as  true.  Figure  53  shows  the  facts  in  the  case.  It  is 
the  average  of  the  ten  leading  crops  of  the  United  States. 
It  shows  that  the  highest  crop  yields  ever  secured  have 
been  in  the  last  fifteen  years.  The  increase  in  yield  per 
acre  has  been  very  marked.  We  have  good  years  and 
poor  years,  but  crop  yields  are  increasing  very  rapidly. 
All  that  is  necessary  to  have  them  go  up  still  farther  is  to 
pay  the  farmer  more  for  his  produce.  By  bringing  in 
land  that  is  now  little  used,  and  by  better  methods  of 
farming,  that  are  already  known  to  farmers,  it  would  prob- 
ably be  possible  to  increase  our  total  production  of  crops  50 

183 


184 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


per  cent  in  three  years,  if  the  farmer  could  be  assured  of 
prices  high  enough  to  warrant  the  expense  involved. 

119.  Ways  in  which  productivity  may  be  decreased.  — 
(1)  The  fertile  surface  soil  maybe  carried  away  by  erosion, 
by  wind,  or  water.  Probably  more  soil  fertility  is  lost  in 
this  way  than  by  cropping.  This  may  be  prevented  by 
keeping  the  soil  in  sod,   by  keeping   cover  crops  on  it 


Fig.  53.  —  Yearly  average  yield  per  acre  of  10  leading  crops  combined 
(representing  in  area  nearly  95  per  cent  of  all  cultivated  crops).  100 
represents  the  average  for  the  43  years.' 

during  the  winter,  and  by  terracing  the  land  as  is  done 
in  the  South. 

(2)  The  soil  may  cease  to  hold  the  proper  moisture 
supply.  This  may  be  remedied  by  drainage  and  tillage, 
and  by  additions  of  humus-making  material. 

(3)  The  soil  may  cease  to  be  favorable  for  the  develop- 
ment of  soil  organisms.  This  may  be  remedied  as  No.  2 
and  by  the  application  of  lime. 

i  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Crop  Reporter,  Jan.,  1911. 


MAINTAINING   FERTILITY  OP  LAND  185 

(4)  The  nitrogen  and  lime  of  the  soil  may  be  earried 
awaj'  in  drainage  water. 

(5)  The  constant  cropping  may  exhaust  the  available 
supply  of  some  plant-food.  Each  crop  removes  a  certain 
amount  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  potash,  and  lime. 
In  time  this  may  limit  the  available  supply.  Usually  it 
is  not  a  shortage  of  the  absolute  amount  of  such  food  in 
the  soil,  but  a  shortage  of  that  which  the  plant  can  secure 
in  soluble  form.  This  may  be  remedied  by  drainage, 
tillage,  additions  of  humus,  lime,  fertilizer,  and  manure. 

(6)  The  exhaustion  of  the  organic  matter  is  the  most 
frequent  cause  for  decrease  in  crop  yields.  This  affects 
crops  in  many  ways.  It  may  result  in  an  unfavorable 
physical  condition  of  the  soil  that  will  limit  the  crop 
when  there  is  no  shortage  of  food.  The  soil  may  "  bake  " 
or  it  may  lose  its  water-holding  power.  Since  the  organic 
matter  furnishes  the  nitrogen  by  its  decomposition  and 
encourages  the  fixation  of  free  nitrogen,  its  exhaustion 
will  be  accompanied  by  a  shortage  of  nitrogen.  Or 
because  of  the  lack  of  organic  matter,  the  mineral  ele- 
ments may  not  be  rapidly  enough  dissolved,  although 
present  in  abundance.  In  such  a  case,  the  addition  of 
phosphoric  acid  or  potash  might  increase  the  crop,  but 
it  woujd  usually  be  wiser  to  supply  organic  matter  so  as 
to  render  available  the  food  that  is  already  in  the 
soil. 

Many  soils  are  losing  their  fertility  in  all  of  the  ways 
mentioned  above. 

(7)  In  arid  regions,  the  accumulation  of  alkali  is  one  of 
the  most  frequent  sources  of  decreased  production.  Too 
heavy  applications  of  water  make  the  problem  worse. 
This  may  be  remedied  by  tile  drainage. 


186  JfMRJf  MANAGEMENT 

MAINTAINING    THE    ORGANIC  MATTER 

120.  Importance  of  organic  matter.  —  The  most  im- 
portant soil  problem  in  nearly  all  regions  is  the  question 
of  organic  matter.  This  problem  is  particularly  serious 
in  the  South.  In  regions  with  long  seasons,  a  tremendous 
quantity  of  organic  matter  is  used  up  each  year.  In 
colder  regions,  the  "  decay  "  is  less  rapid.  In  the  South, 
the  great  soil  problems  are  organic  matter  and  erosion, 
and  the  latter  problem  is,  to  a  considerable  extent,  a  prob- 
lem of  organic  matter,  because  this  helps  to  hold  the  soil. 

Each  farm  must  ordinarily  grow  its  own  organic  matter 
supply.  Occasionally,  a  farmer  may  depend  on  purchased 
manure  or  hay,  straw,  or  other  feed,  but  these  are  expen- 
sive and  bulky  to  handle,  and  cannot  often  be  secured 
at  prices  that  will  enable  a  farmer  to  make  a  profit  from 
them. 

There  are  three  general  methods  of  adding  organic 
matter  to  the  soil.  (1)  By  crop  roots,  stubble,  etc. 
(2)  The  use  of  farm  manure.  (3)  Plowing  under  of  green 
crops. 

121.  Crop  residues.  —  On  some  of  the  richer  soils  in 
the  North,  the  clover  and  other  crop  roots  and  stubble 
seem  to  be  sufficient  to  keep  up  the  supply  of  organic 
matter,  but  on  most  soils  some  of  the  crop  must  be 
returned  to  the  land,  if  the  supply  is  to  be  maintained. 

In  parts  of  the  corn-belt,  the  corn  is  husked  from  the 
standing  stalks,  because  where  feed  is  very  cheap  it  does 
not  pay  to  harvest  corn  stalks.^  The  stalks  are  then 
pastured  more  or  less,  and  are  plowed  under  for  the 
succeeding  crop.  This  is  a  valuable  source  of  organic 
matter  on  these  farms,  and  goes  a  long  ways  toward  keep 

>  Minnesota,  BiUletin  104,  p.  8G. 


MAIXTAtNIXG   FEliTILITr  OF  LAND  187 

iiig  up  tlic  supply.  Sometimes  the  stalks  are  l)urne(l. 
This  may  oet^asionally  l)e  desiralile,  but  one  should  ho 
very  sure  of  it  l)efore  he  destroys  such  valuable  material. 

In  a  few  sections  in  the  western  part  of  the  United 
States,  wheat  is  harvested  with  a  combined  harvester  and 
thresher  that  leaves  the  straw  scattered  over  the  field. 
When  this  is  plowod  under  without  burning,  it  furnishes  a 
large  amount  of  humus-making  material.  In  parts  of 
the  western  wheat  country,  where  grain  cannot  be  safely 
left  standing  until  it  is  dry  enough  to  thresh,  the  threshing 
is  done  from  the  shock  or  stack.  Here  the  straw  is  often 
burned.  It  is  difficult  to  get  this  straw  to  rot  in  a  region 
of  short  rainfall.  It  is,  however,  a  serious  waste  to  burn 
it,  and,  if  possible,  it  should  be  worked  down  by  stock 
and  then  spread  very  thinly  on  the  land  as  a  top  dress- 
ing, or  be  saved  in  some  other  way.  In  this  region,  as 
well  as  in  most  of  the  country,  the  problem  of  organic 
matter  is  a  serious  one. 

122.  Farm  manure  as  a  source  of  organic  matter.  — 
About  40  per  cent  of  the  organic  matter  that  is  fed  to 
animals  is  returned  in  the  manure,  and  all  of  the  bedding 
used  is  so  recovered. 

Heiden  found  that  47  per  cent  of  the  dry  matter  fed 
to  a  horse  was  recovered.  A  full-grown  steer  returned 
56  per  cent  of  the  dry  matter  of  the  feed.^ 

R.  E.  Deuel  fed  46  cows  for  one  week  and  weighed  and 
analyzed  feed,  bedding,  and  manure.  The  cows  had  been 
on  the  same  ration  for  some  time  previous  to  the  test. 
He  found  45  per  cent  of  the  dry  matter  and  43  per  cent 
of  the  organic  matter  of  the  feed  eaten  was  recovered  in 
the  manure. 

Young  animals,  lean  animals,  or  those  that  are  produc- 

'  Feeds  and  Feeding,  W.  A.  Henry,  7th  edition,  pp.  34  and  265. 


188  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

iiig  milk,  or  work,  digest  their  food  closely.  From  the 
limited  information  available,  it  appears  as  if  one  might 
count  on  a  return  of  about  one-half  of  the  organic  matter 
of  the  food,  but  with  usual  methods  of  handling  probably 
not  over  one-fourth  to  one-third  reaches  the  field. 

123.  Pasturing  off  crops.  —  The  practice  of  pasturing 
down  crops  is  on  the  increase.  This  is  a  method  of  saving 
labor  as  well  as  enriching  land.  It  is  particularly  useful 
with  hogs  and  sheep.  This  method  has  long  been  used 
in  England.  It  seems  destined  to  increase  in  this  country. 
Cow  peas,  soy  beans,  rape,  or  other  crops,  may  be  sown 
in  corn  to  be  pastured  off  by  sheep. ^  Hogging  off  corn  is 
becoming  increasingly  popular.  The  hogs  save  the  work 
of  harvesting  corn  and  hauling-  manure.^  R-ye,  wheat, 
peanuts,  and  other  crops,  are  similarly  harvested  by  hogs. 
Very  little  grain  is  wasted.  The  straw  or  stalks  arc  left 
on  the  land.  With  this  system,  the  water  supply  should 
be  moved  from  time  to  time,  so  as  to  secure  a  better 
distribution  of  manure.  In  addition  to  its  advantages 
from  the  standpoint  of  labor,  this  method  is  one  of  the 
best  for  keeping  up  fertility.  Over  half  of  the  manure  is 
usually  lost  when  stock  is  fed  in  yards. 

124.  Green  manure.  —  Sometimes  crops  are  grown  for 
the  purpose  of  plowing  under  for  green  manure.  We  are 
usually  deceived  as  to  the  amount  of  material  that  this 
adds  to  the  soil.  It  takes  a  good  soil  to  grow  two  tons  of 
dry  matter  per  acre.  More  frequently,  one-half  a  ton  is 
secured.  Three  tons  of  farm  manure  usually  give  over 
a  ton  of  dry  matter  3  and,  after  being  properly  spread,  are 
probably  worth  more  than  a  ton  of  dry  matter  in  green 

'  Sheep  Feeding  and  Farm  Management,  D.  Howard  Doane. 

2  Minnesota,  Bulletin  104. 

3  Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  I,  p.  498. 


Fig.  54.  —  A  crop  of  corn  with  rape  sown  at  last  cultivation.     Ready 
to  be  pastured  by  sheep.     Or  the  rape  and  corn  may  bQth  be  hogged 

^^'  (189) 


190  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

manure.  One  objection  to  green  manure  is  that  where 
the  soil  is  most  in  need  of  organic  matter,  the  least 
quantity  grows.  The  parts  of  the  field  that  are  richest 
get  the  heaviest  application,  just  the  reverse  of  what 
is  desired.  The  same  objection  applies  to  farms  as. a 
whole.  Farms  that  are  seriously  in  need  of  organic 
matter  cannot  grow  much  of  a  cro])  of  green  manure. 
A  manure  spreader  will  apply  farm  manure  evenly. 
If  desired,  parts  of  the  field  may  be  given  a  heavier 
application. 

There  are  conditions  under  which  a  catch  crop  can  be 
grown  with  very  little  extra  cost.  Such  crops  are  most 
commonly  grown  in  orchards,  or  sown  in  corn  or  cotton 
at  the  last  cultivation.  When  this  can  be  done,  the  extra 
cost  is  little  more  than  the  seed,  and  a  good  profit  is 
usually  returned. 

It  is  very  doubtful  economy  to  spend  a  year  raising  a 
crop  that  is  to  be  plowed  under.  Such  a  practice  may  pay 
as  compared  with  no  treatment,  if  organic  matter  is  badly 
needed,  but  usually  it  pays  better  to  pasture  down  the 
green  manure  crop,  or  harvest  and  feed  it  and  return  the 
manure.  If  pastured  off  in  the  field,  all  the  roots  and 
considerable  of  the  tops  are  left  where  they  grew,  and 
40-50  per  cent  of  the  material  that  is  eaten  is  returned 
to  the  land. 

There  are  a  few  potato  growers  scattered  about  the 
country,  who  follow  a  three-year  rotation  of  potatoes, 
oats,  and  clover.  Sometimes  rye,  barley,  or  wheat  re- 
places the  oats.  The  clover  is  allowed  to  fall  back  on 
the  land  for  green  manure.  The  cost  of  this  green  manure 
may  be  said  to  be  the  clover  seed  and  use  of  the  land,  as 
little  extra  labor  is  involved.  So  long  as  land  is  cheap, 
this  system  may  be  followed.     It  usually  makes  the  dry 


MAINTAINING  FERTILITY  OF  LAND 


191 


192 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


■  J'                                           ' '    ^     ■''  ■ .    " 

i?^2d5?^^" 

»»         : 

Fig.  56.  —  Corn   field   after   being  hogged   off.     Most  of  the   organic 
matter  is  left  in  the  field. 

matter  cost  from  $2.50  to  $10  per  ton.  The  correspond- 
ing values  of  manure  would  be  from  80  cents  to  over  $3. 
But  there  is  another  way  of  looking  at  the  question. 
What  would  the  farmer  make  if  he  pastured  off  the  clover, 
or  fed  the  clover  hay  ?  On  such  a  farm,  some  such  crop  as 
clover  hay  is  needed  to  keep  the  horses  busy  at  haying  time, 
because  the  other  crops  then  require  little  attention.  And 
some  sort  of  animals  need  to  be  kept  to  provide  winter  work. 

On  one  such  farm,  30  acres  of  clover  were  grown  in 
1910.  Of  this,  10  acres  were  mowed  and  plowed  under 
as  green  manure. 

The  cost  of  green  manure  crop  on  10  acres  was :  — 

Clover  seed  and  seeding $35.00 

Use  of  land 50.00 

Mowing 7.32 

Total $92.32 

Cost  per  acre 9:23 

Cost  per  ton  dry  matter 8.87 


MAINTAINING  FERTILITY  OF  LAND  193 

After  the  crop  is  grown,  the  problem  of  whether  to 
harvest  it  depends  not  on  its  cost,  but  on  its  value  as  feed 
and  as  green  manure  and  the  additional  cost  of  harvesting. 
The  remaining  20  acres  were  harvested  and  yielded  25 
tons.  Raking,  bunching,  and  hauling  in  cost  $48.31,  or 
$1.93  per  ton.  The  hay  was  worth  $8.  It  was,  therefore, 
worth  $6.07  in  the  field.  Figured  at  83  per  cent  dry  matter, 
this  would  be  $7.31  per  ton  of  dry  matter.  Since  three 
tons  of  manure  contain  about  one  ton  of  dry  matter,  the 
corresponding  value  of  manure,  after  it  was  spread  in  the 
field,  would  be  $2.44.  Whether  it  paid  to  plow  this 
clover  under  depended  on  how  good  use  his  animals 
could  make  of  it,  and  on  how  busy  the  farmer  was,  and 
on  the  comparative  benefits  of  manure  and  green  manure 
on  the  potato  crop.  It  seems  likely  that  it  would  pay 
better  to  feed  it. 

The  next  year  (1911)  on  this  same  farm  hay  was  worth 
$18  per  ton,  or  about  $16  above  the  cost  of  raking,  bunch- 
ing, and  hauling  in.  This  would  make  the  dry  matter 
cost  over  $19  per  ton.  The  corresponding  value  of 
manure  would  be  over  $6  per  ton.  Part  of  this  clover 
hay  was  fed  to  sheep,  and  part  plowed  under  as  green 
manure.  The  sheep  paid  for  the  hay  at  this  price,  paid 
for  all  other  feed,  the  use  of  barn,  horse  labor,  interest, 
and  all  other  expenses,  and  left  41  cents  per  hour  as  pay 
for  labor  spent  on  them.  So  that  in  this  case  there  was 
a  great  loss  from  plowing  under  clover,  not  only  because 
the  dry  matter  cost  too  much,  but  because  it  limited  the 
number  of  sheep  kept. 

There  are  some  cases  in  which  it  is  best  to  plow  under 
a  green  manure  crop,  because  it  does  not  pay  to  keep  ani- 
mals to  eat  it,  or  because  animals  might  do  injury,  as  in 
an  orchard.  But,  in  general,  it  is  best  to  either  harvest, 
o 


194  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

or  pasture  down  the  crop  after  it  is  grown.  Hay  is  usually 
too  valuable  a  material  to  use  as  manure. 

Weeds  often  help  to  keep  up  the  supply  of  organic 
matter.  Whenever  there  is  any  time  that  land  is  idle 
between  crops,  the  weeds  fill  in  the  gap.  Sometimes  the 
weeds  do  much  damage  and  sometimes  they  do  no  harm, 
but  always  they  help  to  keep  up  the  humus  supply. 

In  some  of  the  older  parts  of  the  country,  there  are 
large  areas  of  hill  lands  that  never  were  very  productive, 
and  that  are  always  on  the  boundary  line  where  it  is  a 
question  whether  they  will  pay  for  farming.  The  out- 
lying hills  in  the  region  of  the  Appalachian  and  other 
mountains  of  the  Eastern  States  are  mostly  of  this  nature. 
The  valleys  are  usually  fertile.  Much  of  this  hill  land  is 
either  little  used,  or  is  not  cropped  at  all.  A  common 
practice  on  such  land  is  to  mow  it  for  hay  as  long  as  it 
pays  for  cutting,  then  let  it  grow  up  to  goldenrod,  daisies, 
and  other  weeds,  until  it  is  rich  enough  to  give  a  small 
yield  of  potatoes,  buckwheat,  oats,  or  some  other  crop. 
One  or  two  crops  are  grown,  and  it  is  again  allowed  to  go 
back  to  hay  and  then  to  weeds.  At  first  thought,  it  seems 
very  wasteful  to  let  land  grow  nothing  but  weeds,  but  this 
land  is  not  idle  when  it  is  growing  goldenrod.  It  is 
taking  nature's  slow  way  of  renewing  the  organic  matter 
and  nitrogen.  If  land  is  worth  only  $10  per  acre,  the  cost 
of  letting  it  alone  while  it  grows  weeds  is  only  about  60 
cents  per  acre  per  year.  Four  years  of  such  treatment 
at  compound  interest  can  be  had  at  a  cost  of  less  than 
$3  per  acre.  There  are  few  other  ways  of  accomplishing  so 
much  at  so  small  cost. 

In  some  cases,  other  methods  of  management  may  pay 
l)etter,  but  in  many  cases,  the  weeds  furnish  the  cheapest 
source   of  organic  matter.     These  farmers  have  not  the 


MAINTAINING   FERTILITY  OF  LAND  195 

necessary  capital  to  follow  very  intensive  methods,  even 
if  such  methods  could  be  shown  to  pay  when  once  estab- 
lished. In  many  cases,  the  still  less  intensive  farming 
would  pay  better,  that  is,  raise  lumber. 

MAINTAINING   THE    NITROGEN    SUPPLY    OF   THE    SOIL 

125.  Fixation  of  atmospheric  nitrogen.  —  If  a  soil  is 
kept  well  supplied  with  organic  matter,  it  usually  has 
plenty  of  nitrogen,  because  most  of  the  nitrogen  of  the 
soil  is  in  the  organic  matter.  The  ultimate  source  of 
nitrogen  is  the  air.  Bacteria  working  on  the  decaying 
vegetable  matter  are  able  to  take  nitrogen  out  of  the  soil 
air,  and  so  fix  it  for  plant  use.  Bacteria  working  on  the 
roots  of  legumes  also  fix  nitrogen..  Adding  organic  matter 
in  any  way,  keeping  the  land  in  sod,  or  growing  legumes  are 
the  chief  ways  of  encouraging  the  fixation  of  nitrogen.  A 
leguminous  sod  is  usually  better  than  a  cultivated  legume. 

At  the  Rothamsted  Experiment  Station  in  England,  two 
fields  have  been  allowed  to  run  wild  since  1881.  Nothing 
has  been  removed  or  added  to  the  land.  On  one  of  these 
about  one-fourth  of  the  plants  are  legumes.  During  the 
past  thirty  years,  this  field  has  gained  in  nitrogen  at  the 
rate  of  90  pounds  per  acre  per  year.  On  the  other  field 
where  practically  no  legumes  grew,  the  gain  averaged  60 
pounds  per  acre  per  year.  Most  of  this  gain  was  unques- 
tionably due  to  the  fixation  of  nitrogen  by  soil  organisms 
living  on  the  organic  matter  in  the  soil.  In  the  former 
case,  we  do  not  know  how  much  was  due  to  legumes, 
because  this  soil  contained  more  lime,  and  the  lime  favors 
the  organisms  that  act  independently  of  legumes  as  well 
as  those  that  act  on  legumes. 

Of  course,  the  nitrogen  supply  may  be  maintained  by 
the  addition  of  farm  manure  or  commercial  fertilizers, 


196  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

but  even  when  these  are  used,  the  farmer  should  take 
advantage  of  the  natural  means  so  far  as  possible. 

MAINTAINING    THE    MINERAL    MATTER    OF   THE   SOIL 

126.  Sources  of  mineral  matter.  —  The  only  way  to 
keep  up  the  mineral  matter  of  the  soil  is  to  add  the  par- 
ticular elements  that  are  present  in  too  small  quantities. 
The  mineral  that  is  most  likely  to  be  present  in  too  small 
quantities  is  lime.  Fortunately,  the  supply  of  limestone 
in  the  world  seems  to  be  inexhaustible,  so  that  the  ques- 
tion of  using  it  is  simply  one  of  the  cost  of  lime  and  bene- 
fits from  its  use.  Some  soils  have  all  the  lime  that  they 
need,  but  much  over  half  the  soils  east  of  the  Mississippi 
River  would  be  benefited  by  lime.  Lime  is  also  the  most 
frequent  need  in  England.^ 

The  form  of  lime  to  use  seems  to  be  primarily  a  ques- 
tion of  the  cost  of  calcium,  and  the  expense  of  applica- 
tion. Fifty-six  pounds  of  pure  burned  limestone,  or 
quicklime,  is  equal  to  74  pounds  of  hydrated  lime,  or  100 
pounds  of  ground  limestone,  or  air-slaked  lime.  Wood 
ashes  are  about  one-third  lime. 

Potassium  is  fairly  abundant  in  most  soils  in  America, 
but  is  needed  in  many  places,  particularly  on  sandy  and 
swamp  soils. 

Phosphorus  is  practically  always  deficient  on  soils  that 
need  lime,  and  occasionally  on  soils  that  are  well  supplied 
with  lime. 

If  any  one  of  these  minerals  is  deficient,  it  may  be  added 
by  using  fertilizers  or  farm  manure. 

No  method  of  farm  practice  will  add  to  the  supply  of 
any  of  the  mineral  substances,  but  the  rapidity  of  loss  is 

»  The  Soil,  A.  D.  Hall,  p.  243. 


MAINTAINING  FERTILITY  OF  LAND  197 

loss  if  onjsion  is  pr(>voMt(Hl  and  if  farm  manure  is  all 
saved  and  is  so  handled  as  to  prevent  loss  by  leaching 
before  it  is  used.^ 

The  soils  in  arid  regions  are  usually  more  troubled  with 
alkali  than  with  a  shortage  of  minerals. 

AMOUMT   AND    VALUE    OP    FARM    MANURE    PRODUCED 

127.  Fertilizing  value  of  food  and  of  manure.  —  From 
Go  to  75  per  cent  of  the  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and 
potash  fed  to  cows  is  recovered  in  the  manure ;  with  fat- 
tening animals,  85  to  95  per  cent  is  recovered.  In  general, 
it  is  safe  to  assume  that  three-fourths  of  the  fertility  in 
the  feed  is  recovered  in  the  manure.  This,  of  course, 
assumes  that  the  liquid  portion  is  saved  and  that  leach- 
ing and  other  losses  are  prevented.  On  most  farms,  h^^lf 
of  the  value  is  lost.  From  one-third  to  one-half  of  the 
organic  matter  is  recovered,  but  over  half  of  this  is  usually 
lost  when  manure  is  left  in  piles  or  in  the  barnyard. 

128.  Amount  and  value  of  manure  produced  by  farm 
animals.  —  A  1200-pound  horse  will  produce  about 
eleven  tons  of  excrement  per  year,  which,  together  with 
the  bedding,  will  make  about  fourteen  tons  of  manure. 
A  cow  produces  a  little  more,  but  about  the  same  amount 
of  dry  matter.  Steers  fed  at  the  Ohio  Station  averaged 
at  the  rate  of  nine  tons  per  year.  An  equal  weight  of 
sheep  produces  fewer  tons,  but  the  manure  is  drier,  so 
that  about  the  same  amount  of  plant-food  is  produced. 
A  fairly  safe  rule  for  any  stock,  except  poultry  and  hogs, 
is  to  count  one  ton  per  month  for  each  1000  pounds  of 
animals  kept.     To  purchase  an  equal  amount  of  plant- 

1  For  a  discussion  of  the  use  of  fertilizers,  see  any  book  on  soilS)  or 
Elements  of  Agriculture,  G.  F.  Warren,  pp.  107-147. 


198 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


food  in  fertilizers  would  cost  about  $30  per  year.  Tabic 
30  gives  results  obtained  by  Roberts. 

Hogs  eat  nearly  twice  as  much  for  their  weight  and 
give  about  twice  as  much  value  in  manure.  Hens  eat 
over  twice  as  much  as  cattle  for  their  weight  and  return 
twice  as  much  value  in  manure,  but  the  manure  is  very  dry 
and  very  concentrated. 

How  much  manure  is  worth  per  ton  depends  on  how 
much  it  is  needed,  what  it  can  be  bought  for,  the  kind  of 
crops  to  be  grown,  and  many  other  factors.  Much  of  t\\e 
manure  is  always  lost.  The  cost  of  hauling  and  apply- 
ing is  very  great  compared  with  using  fertilizers.  On 
most  farms  it  is  worth  $1  a  ton  at  the  barn.  On  some 
truck  farms  near  cities  it  is  worth  $2  or  more  per  ton. 

Table  30.  —  Manure  Produced  per  1000  Pounds  of  Live 
Weight 


'  The  nitrogen  is  figured  at  16  cents  and  the  other  constituents  at 
4  cents  per  pound. 


The  amount  of  manure  produced  must  be  considered 
in  planning  a  cropping  system  for  a  farm.  If  one  wishes 
to  manure  one-fifth  of  the  land  every  year  with  ten  tons 


MAINTAINING  FERTILITY  OF  LAND  199 

per  acre,  there  would  have  to  be  provided  two  tons  per 
year  for  each  acre  of  the  farm.  This  will  usually  require 
about  one  cow  or  horse,  or  equivalent,  for  each  six  acres 
of  land.  If  the  stock  runs  in  pasture  most  of  the  year,  or 
if  the  manure  is  left  to  rot  at  the  barn,  more  stock  will  be 
necessary. 

METHODS    OF   HANDLING    MANURE 

129.  Methods  of  handling  manure.  —  The  ideal  way 
of  handling  manure  is  to  haul  it  directly  to  the  fields  and 
spread  every  day.  But  on  most  farms  this  is  not  prac- 
tical. A  well-organized  farm  has  so  much  important 
work  during  the  summer  that  one  cannot  afford  to  take 
the  time  to  haul  manure.  Many  times  the  fields  are  wet, 
so  that  driving  on  them  causes  injury.  At  other  times 
crops  are  growing,  so  that  there  is  no  place  to  put  manure. 
A  considerable  number  of  dairy  farmers  who  do  little  but 
produce  milk,  haul  manure  every  day. 

On  most  farms,  manure  must  be  stored  and  hauled  in 
the  fall,  winter,  and  spring.  One  of  the  best  places  to 
store  it  is  in  the  covered  sheds  where  stock  is  fed.  The 
animals  pack  it  and  keep  it  moist  so  that  it  is  well  pre- 
served. If  there  is  a  cement  floor,  there  is  very  little  loss 
so  long  as  the  manure  is  kept  moist  and  packed.  Horse 
and  hen  manure  lose  by  heating.  If  mixed  with  other 
manure,  the  loss  is  less. 

Few  farmers  feel  that  they  can  afford  a  manure  shed, 
])ut  an  even  better  arrangement  is  a  covered  shed  with  a 
cement  floor  where  all  manure  is  dumped  and  on  which 
animals  run. 

The  manure  spreader  is  one  of  the  most  important 
tools  on  tlie  farm,  not  only  because  it  saves  labor,  but 
because  it  spreads  the  manure  over  more  land.     Usually 


"ZW  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

a  light  application  should  be  used  so  that  one  may  get 
over  the  farm  more  frequently.  There  are  few  farms  on 
which  every  field  has  been  manured.  The  manure 
spreader  makes  it  possible  to  get  over  all  the  land.  Usually 
one  of  the  largest  sizes  of  spreaders  should  be  used,  one 
that  uses  3  or  4  horses. 

BEST   WAY    OF   MAINTAINING   FERTILITY  ;    A    BUSINESS 
QUESTION 

130.  A  bank  account  with  the  soil.  —  Sometimes 
farmers  have  been  told  that  they  should  return  to  the 
soil  as  much  of  each  element  of  plant-food  as  is  removed 
in  the  crop.  Such  advice  is  as  foolish  as  is  the  opposite 
statement  that  no  attention  need  be  given  to  the  plant- 
food  removed.  If  there  is  potash  enough  in  the  first 
three  feet  of  soil  to  last  for  several  thousand  years,  as  is 
often  the  case,  it  would  be  foolish  to  use  potash  as  a  fer- 
tilizer, unless  it  paid  at  once,  and  even  then,  one  should 
try  to  find  a  way  of  making  use  of  the  supply  in  the  soil. 
The  future  potash  supply  of  such  a  soil  need  not  worry 
one.  On  the  other  hand,  there  are  occasionally  soils 
that  have  only  potash  enough  for  a  few  crops ;  on  such 
a  soil,  the  future  may  need  to  be  considered. 

How  much  and  what  fertilizers  and  what  other  methods 
should  be  taken  to  keep  the  soil  fertile  are  primarily 
questions  of  profits.  In  England,  some  farmers  us3 
many  times  as  much  plant-food  as  is  removed  in  the  crop. 
Their  method  is  not  due  to  any  superior  intelligence.  It 
is  due  to  high  prices  of  products,  high-priced  land,  and 
cheap  la])or.  At  the  same  time,  there  are  soils  in  Eng- 
l.md  thtit  are  open  range  because  they  are  not  worth 
fencing.^ 

1  The  Soil,  A.  D.  Hall,  p.  242. 


MAINTAINING  FERTILITY  OF  LAND  201 

We  have  already  seen  that  whether  it  pays  to  fertilize 
a  crop  depends  on  the  price  of  the  crop.  If  the  identical 
results  given  in  the  set  of  cost  accounts  on  page  164  could 
be  secured  at  the  same  cost,  the  treatment  would  not 
pay  in  most  parts  of  the  United  States,  because  hay  is 
too  cheap. ^ 

In  the  Eastern  States,  we  often  hear  farmers  boast 
that  they  never  sell  a  pound  of  hay  or  straw.  The  com- 
mon opinion  seems  to  be  that  it  is  little  short  of  criminal 
to  sell  hay.  There  is  no  merit  or  demerit  in  selling  any 
particular  crop.  If  one  sells  everything  that  grows,  in- 
cluding the  straw  and  hay,  and  gives  no  attention  to  the 
soil,  he  is  sure  to  get  into  trouble  sooner  or  later.  But 
there  are  many  ways  of  keeping  up  fertility.  The  ques- 
tion is  which  way  pays  best.  Many  of  the  most  profit- 
able eastern  farms  regularly  sell  hay,  and,  at  the  same 
time,  keep  the  crop  yields  above  those  on  the  farms  that 
never  sell  anything. 

At  Rothamsted,  England,  commercial  fertilizers  have 
maintained  the  yield  of  crops  for  68  years  at  a  point  far 
above  the  crop  of  the  first  years.  The  same  thing  has 
been  done  in  Pennsylvania  for  30  years,  and  in  Ohio  for 
18  years.  Crop  yields  can  be  kept  up  without  any  kind 
of  live-stock.  Just  how  much  or  how  little  live-stock  to 
keep  is  a  question  of  finding  the  most  profitable  type  of 
farming  for  the  conditions.  Usually  it  pays  to  keep  at 
least  enough  stock  to  work  up  the  low-grade  products  of 
the  farm,  and  usually  stock  is  necessary  in  order  to  pro- 
vide a  full  year's  work  for  men  and  horses. 

Very  frequently  the  argument  is  raised  that  no  fer- 
tiUty  leaves  the  farm  if  butter  is  sold.     On  most  farms 

'  See  also  Soil  Fertility  and  Permanent  Agriculture,  C.  G.  Hopkins, 
pp.  397-398. 


202  FAIiM  MANAGEMENT 

selling  butter,  much  less  than  half  tlie  fertility  of  the 
feed  ever  reaches  the  fields.  It  rots  and  wastes  away 
around  the  barns,  and  is  lost  where  cows  stand  in  the 
pasture  creek,  or  where  they  congregate  in  the  corner  or 
under  trees.  Arguments  against  selling  milk  assume  that 
when  the  skim-milk  is  fed  to  hogs,  the  fertility  is  all 
saved.  It  would  be  interesting  to  know  just  how  many 
acres  in  America  have  been  manured  with  hog  manure. 
There  is  no  merit  in  not  selling  anything.  Most  farmers 
sell  too  little.  What  to  sell  and  what  to  buy  and  what 
is  the  best  way  to  keep  up  fertility  can  never  be  solved  by 
formulas. 

References 

The  Principle  of  Soil  Management,  Lyon  and  Fippin. 

Soil  Fertility  and  Permanent  Agriculture,  C.  G.  Hopkins. 

Soils,  S.  W.  Fletcher. 

First  Principles  of  Soil  Fertility,  A.  Vivian. 

Elements  of  Agriculture,  G.  F.  Warren,  pp.  60  to  153. 


CHAPTER  6 

THE   FARM    MANAGEMENT   POINT   OF   VIEW   ON 
SOME  LIVE-STOCK  PROBLEMS 

AMOUNT   OF   LIVE-STOCK   TO    KEEP 

131.    Live-stock  largely  produced  by  cheap  food.  —  All 

kinds  of  live-stock  use  a  considerable  amount  of  cheap  food 
that  would  have  little  value  for  other  purposes. 

In  1910,  there  was  an  average  of  50  chickens  for  the 
farms  keeping  chickens,  and  a  little  over  four  turkeys  on 
farms  that   kept  turkeys   in  the   United   States.     This 


Fio.  57.  —  Turkeys  gathering  their  own  food.  Those  who  use  expen- 
sive feed  must  compete  with  the  product  that  is  largely  grown  on 
cheap  feed. 

203 


204 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


number  of  fowls  can  pick  up  a  large  part  of  their  living 
around  the  farm  at  very  little  cost.  The  great  bulk  of 
the  eggs  produced  come  from  these  small  farm  flocks.  If 
one  keeps  a  large  number  of  fowls  so  that  nearly  all  the 
feed  is  good  grain,  he  must  be  very  skillful  and  have  a 
good  market,  or  he  cannot  compete  with  the  general 
market  that  is  dominated  by  eggs  from  the  small  farm 
flocks. 

Most  of  the  dairy  products  of  the  world  are  produced 
by  small  herds  of  cows  that  are   kept  by  farmers  who 


Fig.  58.  —  Using  cheap  feed  to  carry  animals  over  winter  and  produce 
manure.     Most  of  the  butter  and  meat  is  then  produced  on  pasture. 

derive  most  of  their  income  from  some  other  source.  In 
1900,  dairy  cows  were  kept  by  79  per  cent  of  the  farms  in 
the  United  States,  but  only  6  per  cent  of  the  farms  de- 
rived as  much  as  40  per  cent  of  the  income  from  dairy 
products.     Butter  production  is  particularly  a  side  line; 


POINT  OF   VIEW  ON  LIVE-STOCK  PROBLEMS      205 

63  per  cent  of  the  farms  made  butter  in  1900.  These 
small  dairy  herds  are  very  largely  fed  on  corn  stalks, 
straw,  and  hay  that  is  of  poor  quality.  Most  of  them  are 
pastured  on  land  that  is  not  well  adapted  to  farming. 

Beef  cattle  are,  to  a  still  greater  extent,  maintained  on 
low-grade  products.  A  considerable  portion  of  them  are 
raised  in  arid  regions,  where  they  range  over  large  areas, 
gathering  the  little  food  that  grows.  In  the  central  west, 
their  chief  foods  in  winter  are  straw  and  the  standing  corn 
stalks  on  which  they  pasture.  Only  in  the  finishing  period 
are  they  given  any  large  amount  of  food  that  has  much 
selling  value. 

Any  one  who  produces  beef  or  dairy  products  must  com- 
pete with  products  that  are  raised  on  cheap  feed.  For 
this  reason,  it  is  rarely  wise  to  keep  so  many  animals  as  to 
require  that  their  food  be  chiefly  composed  of  salable 
products.  Only  when  the  stock  is  very  valuable,  or  when 
the  product  is  unusually  valuable,  does  it  pay  to  stock  a 
farm  much  more  heavily  than  the  average  of  the  region. 

In  the  corn-belt,  hogs  are  given  a  considerable  amount 
of  good  grain,  but  an  increasing  use  is  being  made  of  pas- 
ture in  hog  production.  One  who  grows  hogs  entirely  on 
good  grain  must  compete  with  those  who  use  pasture  for 
a  jconsiderable  part  of  the  feed. 

Many  farms  in  the  older  stated  keep  a  few  sheep  as 
scavengers.  These  sheep  clean  up  weeds,  use  low-grade 
hay,  bean  pods,  or  other  cheap  food  of  the  region.  It  may 
pay  to  keep  a  few  sheep  in  this  way  when  it  would  not 
pa}^  at  all  to  keep  a  large  number. 

One  of  the  important  costs  in  colt  production  is  the  time 
of  the  mare.  Persons  who  have  full  use  for  horses  every 
day  rarely  raise  colts.  Horses  on  farms  are  usually 
idle  a  considerable  part  of  the  year.     The  average  time 


206  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

worked  by  a  horse  on  farms  where  cost  accounts  have 
been  kept  is  about  3  hours  a  day.  Farmers  usually  count 
that  by  having  the  colt  come  at  the  right  time  of  the  year, 
they  can  raise  a  colt  and  yet  have  the  mare  do  almost  a 
full  year's  work  on  the  farm. 

As  population  increases,  animals  are  fed  less  and  less 
on  grain  that  is  good  for  human  food,  and  more  and  more 
on  low-grade  products.  One  thousand  bushels  of  grain 
has  about  five  times  as  much  food  value  and  will  support 
about  five  times  as  many  people  as  the  animal  products 
produced  from  it.^ 

132.  Live-stock  produced  on  cheap  time.  —  Not  only 
are  the  foods  used  in  animal  production  very  largely  waste 
products,  but  the  time  spent  on  animals  is,  to  a  large 


s 

1 

Ik 

M^ 

1 

•^  -«-. .-  M 

HL.W 

~^m:MMd 

BfiifaS 

S^^^^^w 

t-^i3 

mm 

BBHB 

HUB 

^Hr^'^ 

'  '^1  ^  '•"Ik  " 

|g 

Fig.  69.  —  Most  of  the  poultry  products  are  produced  by  woman  and 
child  labor. 

extent,  time  that  does  not  have  full  value.  Most  of  the 
farm  poultry  is  taken  care  of  by  women  and  children. 
Much  of  the  milking  is  done  by  women  or  children,  or 
by  men  who  put  in  a  fairly  full  day's  work  besides  doing 
the  milking. 

»  See  also  C.  G.  Hopkins,   Soil  Fertility  and  Permanent  Agriculture, 
pp.  226-235. 


POINT   OF   VIEW  ON  LIVE  STOCK  PROBLEMS      207 

133.  Live-stock  produced  on  a  low  margin  of  profit.  — 
For  all  these  reasons,  live-stock  in  general  is  produced  on 
a  low  margin  of  profit.  The  large  amount  of  stock  kept 
on  low-grade  products  controls  the  price. 

All  work  on  cost  accounting  shows  that  the  crops 
generally  pay  much  better  than  live-stock  for  the  time 
spent.  Only  when  one  has  pure-bred  stock,  or  some  un- 
usual condition,  does  it  pay  to  stock  a  farm  too  heavily. 
It  is  not  often  wise  to  keep  much  more  live-stock  per  acre 
than  is  kept  by  the  majority  of  farmers  in  the  neighbor- 
hood. 

Neither  does  it  often  pay  to  go  to  the  other  extreme  of 
keeping  no  live-stock.  Every  farm  has  more  or  less 
stubble,  corn  stalks,  low  grade  hay,  or  some  other  kind 
of  produce  that  will  help  to  keep  some  animals.  It  is 
nearly  always  wise  to  keep  stock  enough  to  use  up  the 
low-grade  and  waste  products. 

The  most  profitable  types  of  farming  nearly  always 
combine  live-stock  and  cash  crops.  If  one  goes  to  the 
extreme  on  live-stock,  he  is  spending  all  his  time  on  products 
that,  in  general,  are  produced  on  a  very  low  margin  of 
profit.  If  he  spends  all  his  time  on  crops,  he  will  not 
be  making  full  use  of  the  low-grade  products,  and  is  not 
likely  to  be  able  to  keep  busy  all  the  year.  To  over- 
stock or  under-stock  a  farm  are  both  serious  mistakes. 

134.  Keeping  stock  enough  to  eat  all  the  feed  raised 
vs.  always  having  feed  enough  for  the  stock.  —  Many 
farmers  in  the  Eastern  States  boast  that  they  never  sell 
a  pound  of  hay.  The  same  statement  is  often  made  about 
corn  in  the  corn-belt.  In  the  South,  feed  is  nearly  always 
purchased. 

If  a  farmer  in  the  Eastern  States  keeps  stock  enough  so 
that  he  will  never  have  any  hay  to  sell,  then  in  years  when 


208  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

the  hay  crop  is  short,  he  must  either  sell  some  of  his 
animals  or  buy  hay.  In  such  years  stock  is  not  likely  to 
sell  well  and  hay  is  certain  to  be  high  in  price. 

If  hay  is  worth  $15  a  ton  at  the  railroad  station,  it  is 
usually  not  worth  more  than  $12.50  on  the  farm,  because 
the  cost  of  baling  and  hauling  to  the  station  must  be 
deducted.  Live-stock  need  only  return  $12.50  for  hay 
to  make  it  pay  to  feed  rather  than  sell.  But  the  farmer 
who  buys  hay,  particularly  in  the  year  of  a  poor  crop, 
usually  has  to  pay  more  than  the  market  price,  and  often 
hauls  it  besides.  In  the  spring  of  1912  in  some  regions 
in  the  Eastern  States,  farmers  had  to  pay  much  more  than 
the  price  of  hay  in  New  York  City,  because  hay  had  to  be 
shipped  to  the  farming  regions.  Manj^  farmers  in  the 
Middle  West  paid  more  than  the  Chicago  price. 

One  of  the  most  profitable  types  of  farming  in  the 
east  is  dairying  combined  with  hay  and  other  cash  crops. 
Of  the  23  dairy  farms  included  in  the  49  most  profitable 
farms  out  of  2743,  all  but  three  sold  some  cash  crops. 
(Page  134.)  On  six  of  these,  hay  was  a  very  important 
cash  crop.  On  most  of  the  others,  some  hay  was  sold. 
Several  of  these  farms  that  sold  little  or  no  hay  had  to 
buy  hay  in  the  spring  of  1912,  and  lost  heavily  on  that 
year's  business. 

It  is  very  much  safer,  and  usually  pays  better,  for  the 
dairyman  in  these  sections  to  keep  no  more  stock  than  he 
can  raise  hay  and  corn  silage  for  in  a  rather  poor  year. 
Usually  he  will  have  some  hay  to  sell. 

The  same  point  applies  to  pasture.  Governor  Hoard 
has  humorously  expressed  the  point  by  saying  that  "  If  a 
man  has  pasture  enough  for  10  cows,  he  should  keep  20. 
He  will  get  almost  as  much  milk  and  have  more  cows." 

If,  after  one  is  started  in  farming,  he  finds  that  live- 


POINT  OF   VIEW   ON   LIVE-STOCK   PROBLEMS      209 

stock  is  paying  exceptionally  well,  he  may  gradually 
increase  the  amount  kept  so  long  as  the  increase  pays. 
This  often  happens  when  pure-bred  stock  is  kept.  But 
in  the  start  it  is  much  safer  to  follow  the  general  practice 
of  the  community,  and  let  the  business  grow  into  an 
intensivel}^  stocked  place.  Even  when  the  stock  is  found 
to  pa}^  exceptionally  well,  breeders  usually  find  that  it 
pays  to  enlarge  the  farm  as  the  stock  increases.  See  also 
pages  122  to  131. 

Farmer  no.  3,  Table  22,  page  134,  has  one  of  the  most  in- 
tensive types  of  farming.  He  produces  pure-bred  cattle 
and  certified  milk  and  is  doing  well  with  the  combination. 
In  the  year  when  this  record  was  secured,  he  had  87  acres 
of  crops  and  76  animal  units.  Almost  an  animal  unit 
per  acre  of  crops.  All  the  crops  were  fed  and  a  large 
amount  of  grain  feed  was  bought.  A  few  years  later, 
the  farm  was  enlarged  to  232  acres  and  the  animal  units 
reduced  to  69 ;  there  were  138  acres  of  crop  or  2  acres  of 
crops  per  animal  unit.  This  year  S967  worth  of  cash  crops 
were  sold.  Only  a  little  more  help  was  hired  in  harvest. 
No  more  horses  were  required.  The  better  organized 
business  resulted  in  a  larger  labor  income. 

The  farmer  in  the  Middle  West  who  produces  hogs  has 
a  little  different  problem,  because  hogs  can  be  prepared  for 
market  on  short  notice.  Shoats  can  be  sold  while  small, 
if  corn  is  too  scarce.  The  size  to  which  the  hogs  are 
grown  is  to  considerable  extent  determined  by  the  relative 
price  of  corn  and  hogs. 

The  writer  has  no  figures  on  this  problem,  but  from 
many  years'  observation  is  of  the  opinion  that  it  usually 
pays  best  to  sell  corn  as  well  as  hogs,  so  that  corn  will  not 
often  have  to  be  bought. 

135.    Animal  unit.  —  In  order  to  have  a  basis  for  com- 


210  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

paring  the  amount  of  live-stock  kept,  all  kinds  of  live- 
stock must  be  reduced  to  some  unit  that  can  be  compared. 
Comparison  may  be  made  on  the  basis  of  feed  eaten  and 
value  of  manure  produced.  If  we  call  a  cow  or  horse  a 
unit,  we  can  make  an  approximation  of  how  many  animals 
of  other  sorts  will  equal  one.  For  instance,  7  sheep  eat 
about  as  much  as  a  cow  and  produce  about  the  same  value 
of  manure.  The  figures  vvill  vary  with  different  systems 
of  farming.  Some  dairymen  feed  a  cow  almost  twice  as 
much  as  they  feed  a  horse.  Others  feed  horses  more  than 
they  feed  cows.  This  is  the  case  in  much  of  the  corn-belt. 
It  is  not  necessary  that  the  figures  be  exactly  correct  in 
order  to  make  a  comparison  of  farms. 

One  cow,  bull,  steer,  or  horse  two  years  old  or  older  may 
be  called  an  animal  unit.  Two  head  of  colts  or  young 
cattle  may  be  counted  as  one.  Seven  sheep,  14  lambs, 
5  hogs,  10  pigs,  100  hens  may  each  be  called  an  animal 
unit.  It  is  perhaps  a  little  more  accurate  to  count  2  colts 
or  young  cattle  over  a  year  old  as  one  unit  and  count  4  of 
those  under  one  year  as  one  unit. 

If  a  farmer  has  the  following  stock,  he  has  23  animal 

units,  or  the  equivalent  of  about  23  cows,  so  far  as  feed  and 

manure  are  concerned. 

Animal  Units 

4  horses 4 

2  colts       1 

7  cows 7 

5  young  cattle 2.5 

3  hogs  .6 

10  pigs  1. 

30  sheep 4.3 

25  lambs 1.8 

70  hens  _^ 

22.9 

If  he  has  160  acres  of  land,  he  has  an  animal  unit  for 
each  7  acres  of   land.     If  he   has    115    acres  of   crops, 


POINT  OF  VIEW  ON  LIVE-STOCK  PROBLEMS      211 

then  there  are  5  acres  per  animal  unit.  Such  a  farm  is  fairly 
well  stocked.  Such  a  farm  will  usually  have  about  200 
tons  of  manure  a  year.  If  a  manure  spreader  is  used  and 
5  loads  are  applied  per  acre,  the  tillable  land  can  all  be 
covered  in  6  years. 

A  farm  that  has  an  animal  unit  for  each  3  or  4  acres  is 
heavily  stocked.  One  that  has  5  to  7  acres  for  each  animal 
unit  is  moderately  stocked.  One  that  has  over  7  acres  per 
animal  unit  is  lightly  stocked. 

A  better  comparison  is  on  the  basis  of  crops  grown.  A 
farm  with  an  animal  unit  for  1  to  3  acres  of  crops  is  heavily 
stocked.  One  with  6  or  more  acres  of  crops  per  animal 
unit  is  lightly  stocked. 

On  most  general  farms  it  requires  at  least  one  animal 
unit  for  each  5  or  6  acres  of  crops  to  use  up  the  low  grade 
or  waste  products.  If  animals  pay  well,  the  number  may 
be  increased  to  one  for  each  3  or  4  acres  of  crops.  But 
only  when  experience  has  shown  animals  to  be  very  prof- 
itable should  the  number  go  much  beyond  this.  Otherwise 
the  animals  will  be  using  all  the  products.  There  will  be 
no  cash  crops,  and  in  years  of  shortage,  when  crops  are  high, 
feed  will  have  to  be  bought  rather  than  sold.  Of  course 
the  crop  yields  decidedly  affect  the  condition.  The  above 
discussion  is  approximately  right  for  average  conditions 
in  general  farming  regions. 

Table  54,  page  272,  shows  the  number  of  acres  of  crops 
per  animal  unit  in  ten  typical  counties  in  different  parts  of 
the  United  States.  The  area  varies  from  less  than  2  acres 
in  an  irrigated  region  and  in  a  dairy  region  near  New  York 
to  nearly  13  acres  in  a  dry  farming  wheat  region. 


212 


FABM  MANAGEMENT 
FEEDING   ANIMALS 


136.  Balanced  rations.  —  It  is  necessary  that  animals 
have  enough  of  each  of  the  different  food  elements  as  well 
as  that  the  total  amount  be  enough.  In  regions  where 
the  hay  is  nearlj^  all  alfalfa,  clover,  or  some  other  legume 
there  is  usually  little  difficulty  about  balanced  rations. 
If  the  roughage  is  largely  timothy,  corn  stalks,  corn  silage,  or 
other  non-leguminous  hay,  it  is  necessary  to  study  the 
feeds  used  to  be  sure  that  they  contain  enough  nitrogen. 
With  dairy  cows  this  is  usually  accomplished  if  one-third 
of  the  grain  feed  is  high  in  protein,  one-third  medium  in 
protein,  and  one-third  low  in  protein. 

137.  Short  method  of  balancing  rations  for  cows.  —  The 
following  is  a  short  method  of  balancing  rations  devised 
by  H.  H.  Wing :  — 


Low  Pbotein  Group 

Medium  Protein  Group 

High  Protein  Group 

Total  Protein 
or  less 

12% 

Total  Protein  12  %  to  25  % 

Total  Protein  25  % 
or  more 

Corn      .     . 

10.3 

Wheat  bran      .  15.4 

Malt  sprouts     .  26.3 

Oats. 

11.4 

Mixed       wheat 

Linseed  Oil  Meal  33.9 

Wheat  .     . 

11.9 

feed      .     .     .  16.3 

Cotton  Meal .     .  45.3 

Rye  .     .     . 

11.3 

Standard  wheat 

Gluten  Feed.     .  25.0 

Barley   .     . 

12.0 

middlings       .  16.9 

Brewers'     dried 

Buckwheat 

10.8 

Flour        Wheat 

grains   .     .     .  25.0 

Hominy  Chop 

10.5 

Middlings       .  19.2 

Distillers'  dried 

Dried         beel 

Cotton         Seed 

grains  (corn)     31.2 

pulp  .     . 

.    8.1- 

Feed     .     .     .  20.0 

Buckwheat  Midds 

Corn  and  eoh 

) 

Buckwheat  feed 

(free         from 

meal  .     . 

.    8.5 

(shuck  in)       .  18.3 
Pea  Meal      .     .  20.2 
CuU  Beans    .     .21.6 

shuck)  .     .     .  26.7 

The  ordinary  grain  feeds  may  be  divided  into  three 
groups :     low  protein  (less  than  12  per  cent) ;    medium 


POINT  OF  VIEW  ON   LIVE-STOCK  PROBLEMS      213 

protein  (12  to  25  per  cent) ;  high  protein  (over  25  per 
cent). 

"  Heavy  "  foods  are  in  dark-faced  type,  "  hght  "  foods 
are  in  ordinary  type. 

Mixed  hay,  corn  silage,  corn  stalks,  or  fodder  are  very 
similar  in  composition  so  far  as  the  balance  between  pro- 
tein and  carbohydrates  is  concerned. 

For  the  sake  of  variety  it  is  desirable  to  use  at  least 
three  feeds.  If  one  low  protein,  one  medium  protein,  and 
one  high  protein  food  be  mixed  together  in  equal  parts  by 
weight,  the  mixture  will  make  a  well-balanced  ration  to 
be  used  with  the  above  kinds  of  roughage. 

An  ideal  grain  ration  should  weigh  about  one  pound  to 
the  quart.  To  secure  this  the  mixture  should  contain 
at  least  one  "  light"  food  (printed  there  in  ordinary  type). 

A  dairy  cow  in  full  milk  should  have  all  the  hay  and 
silage  that  she  will  eat  and  if  giving  4  per  cent  milk  or  richer 
should  have  one  pound  of  grain  for  each  3  or  3|  pounds  of 
milk  that  she  produces.  A  cow  giving  milk  with  less  than 
4  per  cent  of  fat  should  have  one  pound  of  grain  for  each 
3|  or  4  pounds  of  milk  that  she  produces.  If  clover  or 
alfalfa  hay  are  used,  the  feed  mixture  does  not  require 
any  of  the  high  protein  feeds. 

138,  "  Roughing  "  animals  through  winter.  —  Young 
animals  seem  to  have  a  considerable  power  to  recover  from 
periods  of  short  feeding  without  permanent  stunting.  Of 
course  the  period  must  not  last  too  long.  Farmers  take 
advantage  of  this  in  raising  calves.  Calves  are  often 
carried  along  cheaply  until  they  are  old  enough  to  eat 
hay,  grass,  and  grain.  This  is  often  a  great  economy  in 
raising  calves.  When  such  calves  are  a  year  old  they  are 
often  as  good  as  if  they  had  been  given  more  milk. 

The  same  principle  is  used  in  carrying  young  stock 


214  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

over  winter.  The  usual  practice  is  to  use  straw,  corn 
stalks,  and  cheap  hay  together  with  a  very  limited  amount 
of  grain  so  that  the  animals  are  usually  very  thin  in  the 
spring.  If  the  summer  feed  is  abundant,  such  animals 
promptly  recover  and  usually  catch  up  with  those  that 
were  fully  fed  all  winter.  Young  stock  that  is  being  thus 
"  roughed  through  "  the  winter  grows,  —  even  though  it  is 
getting  poor.  It  is  growing  bones  or  frame  on  which  to 
put  the  muscle  and  fat  when  grass  comes.  This  method 
of  feeding  must  not  be  confused  with  never  feeding  animals 
enough.  With  it  there  is  always  an  abundance  of  feed. 
But  the  winter  feed  is  cheap  feed  on  which  an  animal 
loses  flesh  but  grows  bone.  Young  stock  may  get  very 
poor  when  fed  on  straw  and  corn  stalks,  but  it  does  not 
starve.  It  gets  plenty  of  bone-making  material  and  grows 
bones  while  it  is  getting  poor.  To  conduct  the  system 
successfully  there  should  be  an  abundance  of  pasture. 

Experiments  in  beef  production  at  the  Missouri  and' 
Kansas  Experiment  stations  have  strikingly  verified  the 
farmer's  experience  in  raising  young  stock  by  such  methods. 
Comparatively  little  grain  is  needed  except  to  finish  the 
animal  for  market.  When  the  animal  is  producing  milk 
or  is  being  fattened,  it  usually  pays  to  feed  grain  liberally. 

In  years  when  grain  is  cheap  more  of  it  may  be  fed.  In 
years  when  it  is  high,  practically  none  is  fed  to  young 
stock  that  is  being  thus  carried  over  winter. 

One  who  is  raising  high-priced  pure-bred  stock  will  of 
course  feed  more  at  all  times.  The  method  described 
above  is  very  different  from  that  of  the  farmer  mentioned 
on  page  229  who  uses  $169  worth  of  feed  in  raising  a 
heifer  to  30  months  old.  He  probably  hopes  that  the 
heifer  will  be  worth  $500.  Each  method  is  the  proper 
one  for  the  kind  of  stock  and  other  conditions. 


POINT  OF  VIEW  ON  LIVE-STOCK  PROBLEMS      215 


Table  31. 


Values  of  Different  Feeds  in   Terms  of  Corn 
OR  Feed  Units  ^ 


Corn 

Equivalent 

Variations 

Concentrates. 

Corn,  wheat,  rye,  barley,  hominy  feed, 

dried    brewers'  grains,  wheat    mid- 

dlings,   oat    shorts,    peas.    Unicorn 

Dairy  Ration,  molasses  beet  pulp    . 

1.00 

— 

Cottonseed  meal 

1.25 

Oil  meal,  Ajax  Flakes  (dried  distillers' 

grains),  gluten  feed,  soy  beans 

1.11 

Wheat   bran,   oats,    dried   beet   pulp. 

barley  feed,  malt  sprouts,  Interna- 

tional Sugar  Feed,  Quaker  or  Sugar- 

ota  Molasses  or  Dairy  Feed,  Sucrene 

Dairy    Feed,    Badger    Dairy    Feed, 

Schumacher   Stock   Feed,   molasses 

grains 

.91 

Alfalfa  meal,  Victor  feed,  alfalfa  molas- 

ses feeds      

.83 

Hay  and  straw. 

Alfalfa  hay,  clover  hay 

.50 

.33- 

.67 

Mixed  hay,  oat  hay,  oat  and  pea  hay. 

barley  and  pea  hay,  redtop  hay . 

.40 

.33- 

.50 

Timothy  hay,  prairie  hay,  sorghum  hay 

.33 

.29- 

.40 

Corn  stover,  stalks  or  fodder,  marsh 

hay,  cut  straw 

.25 

.17- 

.29 

Soiling  crops,  silage,  and  other  succulent 

feeds. 

Green  alfalfa 

.14 

.13- 

.17 

Green  corn,  sorghum,  clover,  peas  and 

oats,  cannery  refuse 

.13 

.10-.14 

Alfalfa  silage 

.20 

Corn  silage,  pea  vine  silage    .... 

.17 

.14-.20 

Wet  brewers'  grains 

.25 

Potatoes,  skim  milk,  buttermilk      .     . 

.17 

Sugar  beets 

.14 

Carrots 

.13 
.11 

.10- 

Rutabagas 

-.13 

Field  beets,  green  rape 

.10 

Sugar  beet  leaves  and  tops,  whey   .     . 

.08 

Turnips,  mangels,  fresh  beet  pulp    .     . 

.08 

.07- 

-.10 

The  value  of  pasture  is  generally  placed 
day,  on  the  average,  varying  with  kind  and 


at  8  to  10  units  per 
condition. 


1  Wisconsin  Circular  37  and  Research  Bulletin  26. 


216 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


139.  Feed  units.  —  In  order  to  compare  the  feeding 
value  of  different  feeds,  various  feed  units  have  been  used. 
The  best  one  for  American  conditions  considers  corn  as  1 
and  expresses  the  value  of  other  feeds  in  terms  of  their 
corn  equivalent.  Such  a  system  is  of  value  in  helping 
one  to  determine  which  feeds  to  buy  at  present  market 
prices.  Of  course  it  cannot  be  followed  blindly.  In 
order  to  be  able  to  compare  the  amounts  of  feed  used  by 
different  animals  or  herds,  some  such  system  is  necessary. 
The  following  table  represents  the  comparative  values  of 
different  feeds  as  based  on  many  feeding  trials  with 
dairy  cows.  To  a  limited  extent,  a  pound  of  one  of  the 
given  feeds  may  replace  one  of  the  other  feeds  to  which 
it  is  equivalent  without  decreasing  the  milk  yield. 

If  a  cow  is  fed  40  pounds  of  silage,  10  pounds  of  mixed 
hay,  and  9  pounds  of  grain,  made  up  of  a  mixture  of  equal 
parts  of  Ajax  flakes,  corn  meal,  and  wheat  bran,  19.86 
feed  units  would  be  used.  The  method  of  calculating  is 
as  follows :  — 


COBN 

Equivalent 

Feed  Units 

40  lb.  corn  silage 

10  lb.  mixed  hay 

3  lb.  corn 

.17 
.40 

1. 
.91 

1.11 

6.80 
4.00 
3. 

3  lb.  wheat  bran 

3  lb.  Ajax  flakes 

2.73 
3.33 

Total       

19.86 

Of  course  there  is  great  variation  in  the  different 
grades  of  hay,  corn  silage,  and  similar  products.  The 
approximate  range  of  variation  is  shown  in  the  last  column 
of  Table  31.  There  is  also  poor  corn.  The  unit  is  for  good 
corn.     If  feeds  are  poor,  an  allowance  may  be  made. 


POINT  OF   VIEW  ON  LIVE-STOCK  PROBLEMS      217 

Some  idea  of  the  production  to  be  expected  per  feed 
unit  is  given  by  Table  32  from  results  of  a  cow  competi- 
tion in  Wisconsin.  The  cows  in  this  test  were  better  than 
average  cows.  The  cows  averaged  about  6.5  pounds  of 
butter  fat  per  100  feed  units.  The  average  milk  produc- 
tion varied  from  128  pounds  for  Jerseys  to  186  for 
Holsteins  per  100  feed  units.  The  total  solids  in  the  milk 
varied  from  18  for  Jerseys  to  22  for  Holsteins  per  100  feed 
units.  There  is  of  course  great  variation  in  individual 
cows.  In  this  test,  the  poorest  30  cows  gave  5  pounds  of 
butter  fat  per  100  feed  units,  and  the  best  30  cows  gave 
7.6  pounds  per  100  feed  units. 

Table  32.     Production  per  Feed  Unit^ 


HOLSTEIN 

Guernsey 

Jehset 

Number  of  cows 

158 

157 

80 

Pounds  milk  per  cow     . 

14689 

8465 

7047 

Pounds  butter  fat  per  cow 

503 

421 

363 

P^eed  units  per  cow   .... 

7913 

6420 

5514 

Pounds  milk  per  100  feed  units 

186 

132 

128 

Pounds  solids  in  milk  per  100 

feed  units 

22.2 

18.5 

18.3 

Pounds    butter    fat    per    100 

feed  units 

6.36 

6.56 

6.59 

>  Wisconsin,  Bulletin  226,  p.  21. 


ANIMAL  RECORDS 

140.  Milk  records.  —  Every  dairyman  who  wishes  to 
increase  his  profits  should  keep  milk  records  of  individual 
cows.  Only  in  this  way  can  he  tell  which  cows  are  worth 
keeping.  The  prices  of  milk  and  butter  are  so  low  that 
the  margin  of  profit  in  the  dairy  business  is  very  close. 
The  profit  may  easily  be  changed  to  a  decided  loss  by  the 


218 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


presence  of  a  few  poor  cows.  Under  most  conditions, 
it  is  difficult  to  make  a  profit  from  an  average  cow.  Since 
about  half  the  cows  are  below  the  average,  the  importance 
of  milk  records  is  apparent. 

Most  persons  think  that  they  know  which  are  the  best 
cows,  but  when  the  milk  is  weighed,  they  nearly  always 
find  that  they  were  mistaken. 

If  the  milk  is  to  be  weighed,  one  should  buy  a  spring 
balance  that  weighs  in   pounds  and   tenths   of   pounds. 

This  saves  much  time.  Nearly 
any  dairy  supply  house  or  hard- 
ware store  can  furnish  this  kind 
of  a  spring  balance  for  about  $3 
to  $4.  It  is  also  convenient  to 
have  two  pointers,  one  of  which 
is  adjustable.  This  can  be  set 
to  read  0  when  an  empty  pail  is 
hung  on  the  scales.  If  there  are 
several  milkers,  the  pails  may  all 
be  weighted  to  weigh  alike  by 
soldering  lead  on  the  bottom  of 
each  pail .  Sometimes  the  results 
are  accurate  enough  if  the  milk  is 
weighed  to  the  nearest  pound. 
The  record  sheet  should  be 
ruled  as  in  Figure  60  with  the 
cow's  name  or  number  at  the  head  of  the  column  and  place 
for  morning  and  night's  milk,  one  below  the  other,  so  that 
the  month's  column  will  add  readily. 

A.  W.  Sweeton  kept  track  of  the  time  required  to  milk  a 
herd  when  the  milk  was  weighed,  and  found  the  time  for 
the  same  milker  when  not  weighed.  This  was  repeated  a 
number   of  times.     The   difference   averaged   0.52   of   a 


Fig.  60. — Weighing  the   milk 
to  find  which  cows  pay. 


POINT  OF  VIEW  ON  LIVE-STOCK  PROBLEMS      219 

minute  per  cow  per  milking,  or  practically  one  minute 
per  cow  per  day.  If  the  milk  is  weighed  every  day,  this 
would  amount  to  about  6  hours  per  year.  This  time 
would  be  worth  from  $1  to  $1.20.  This  cost  is  usually 
more  than  made  up  in  the  gain  made  by  selling  a  single 
poor  cow.  From  one-tenth  to  over  half  of  the  herd  are. 
likely  to  be  found  to  be  resulting  in  a  loss. 

141.  Short  methods  of  weighing  milk.  —  There  are  a 
number  of  short  methods  of  weighing  milk  that  are 
sufficiently  accurate  for  ordinary  purposes. 

Probably  the  best  method,  if  milk  is  not  weighed  every 
day,  is  to  weigh  it  on  the  first  three  days  of  every  month,  or 
on  three  consecutive  days  at  any  other  time  in  the  month. 
J.  L.  Hills  of  Vermont  ^  examined  579  yearly  milk 
records  and  found  that  this  method  gave  results  within  4 
per  cent  of  the  true  yearly  production  in  98  cases  out  of  100. 

Some  of  the  other  short  methods  that  are  more  or  less 
used  are  to  weigh  the  milk  one  day  p^'r  month,  one  day 
each  week,  or  every  seventh  week.  Any  one  of  the  short 
methods  will  give  results  that  are  accurate  enough  to  be 
of  great  service  in  determining  which  cows  to  discard. 

142.  Butter-fat  tests.  —  If  one  is  selling  milk  to  cities,  the 
weight  of  the  milk  may  be  all  that  is  necessary,  but  even 
then,  some  knowledge  of  the  per  cent  of  fat  in  the  milk  of 
each  cow  is  desirable.  If  butter  or  cream  is  sold,  or  if  milk 
is  sold  on  a  butter-fat  test,  it  is  just  as  important  to  know 
the  per  cent  of  fat  in  each  cow's  milk  as  to  know  the 
amount  of  milk  given.  The  milk  from  each  cow  may  be 
tested  once  a  month  or  every  other  month,  or  each  cow  may 
be  tested  in  the  third,  fifth,  and  seventh  months  after  calv- 
ing. Any  of  these  methods  will  give  fairly  accurate  results. 
The  test  every  month  is,  of  course,  the  most  accurate. 

•Vermont,  Bulletin  128,  p.  62. 


220  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

143.  Production  required  for  profit.  —  The  production 
required  to  pay  a  profit  depends  on  many  factors.  The 
cost  of  the  cow,  labor,  feed,  and  buildings,  and  the  value 
of  the  products  are  the  chief  factors. 

With  present  prices  in  most  of  the  Northern  States,  the 
feed  and  pasture  are  usually  worth  $50  to  $75  per  cow; 
the  labor  varies  from  $20  to  $40  per  cow  and  probably 
averages  about  $25.  The  interest,  repairs,  taxes,  de- 
preciation, and  insurance  on  the  barn  in  northern  regions 
is  usually  about  $5  per  cow.  The  many  other  expenses 
bring  the  cost  up  to  $80  to  $100  per  cow  for  well-managed 
herds. 

The  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station  ^  estimates  that  one- 
fourth  to  one-third  of  the  cows  do  not  even  pay  for  their 
feed,  to  say  nothing  of  other  expenses.  This  is  at  once  a 
strong  argument  for  finding  out  which  these  cows  are 
and  a  striking  proof  of  the  narrow  margin  of  profit  in  the ' 
dairy  business.  When  one  is  in  a  business  that  shows  so 
low  a  margin  of  profit,  he  must  be  ever  alert  or  he  may  find 
himself  working  for  nothing.  The  only  way  that  a  living 
can  be  made  from  poor  cows  at  present  prices  is  to  have 
the  milking  done  by  women  and  children  who  are  not  paid. 
The  cows  must  be  better  than  the  average  if  they  are  to 
pay  regular  farm  wages  to  the  milkers  and  all  other  costs. 

In  Tompkins  County,  New  York,  in  1907,  it  was  found 
that  the  products  sold  must  exceed  $75  per  cow  in  order 
to  allow  the  owner  to  make  as  good  wages  as  hired-men 
received.  Only  those  herds  from  which  the  products 
sold  for  at  least  $100  per  cow  resulted  in  much  profit.^ 

On  intensive  dairy  farms  in  the  Northeastern  States, 
it  is  usually  considered  that  a  mature  cow  should  be  sold,  if 

'  Wisconsin,  Bulletin  226,  p.  3. 

«  New  York,  Cornell  Bulletin  295,  p.  485. 


POINT  OF  VIEW  ON  LIVE-STOCK  PROBLEMS     221 

she  does  not  give  7000  pounds  of  milk  per  year.  If  cream  or 
butter  are  sold  at  wholesale  prices,  it  is  doubtful  if  there 
is  much  profit  in  keeping  a  mature  cow  that  with  good 
feeding  fails  to  give  250  pounds  of  butter  per  year.  (See 
also  pages  170  and  180.) 

In  order  not  to  discriminate  against  heifers,  their 
productions  may  be  increased  as  follows,  in  order  to  com- 
pare with  mature  cows :  ^  — 


Age  at  Beoinninq  of  Test 

Percentage  to  Increase  Record 
FOR  Comparison  with  Mature  Cows 

2^  years 

2i-3 

30% 
24 

3  -3i 

18 

3*-4 

15 

4-4* 

8 

4i-5 

5 

Milk  records,  like  all  other  farm  records,  are  an  aid  in 
making  decisions.  All  such  records  must  be  used  with 
judgment.  A  good  cow  may  have  an  "  off  year  "  for  some 
reason.     One  must  not  follow  the  records  blindly. 

144.  Egg  records.  —  If  many  hens  are  kept,  an  egg 
record  becomes  important.  Such  a  record  can  readily 
be  kept  by  having  a  sheet  of  paper  on  the  wall  with  a  lead 
pencil  beside  it.  The  eggs  should  be  counted  as  they  are 
taken  from  the  nests,  and  put  down  every  day.  If  it  is 
desired  to  know  how  many  eggs  are  used  in  the  house,  the 
number  sold  and  incubated  can  be  subtracted  from  the 
number  laid,  or  if  this  is  not  accurate  enough,  those  used 
may  be  counted.  The  following  form  may  be  fastened 
in  a  convenient  place.  If  the  hens  are  counted  once  a 
year,  and  the  record  kept  of  deaths,  sales,  and  those  eaten, 

»  Wisconsin,  Bulletin  226,  pp.  7-8. 


222 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


January, 
1911 

No.  Eggs 

Died 

On  Hand  96  Hens, 
216  Pullets, 
9  Roosters 

Hena 

Pullets 

Roosters 

Sold  and  Eaten 

1 

2 
3 
4 
5 
6 

22 
22 
24 
23 
24 
31 

1 

1  rooster  sold 

the  number  of  those  on  hand  at  the  end  of  the  month  can 
be  gotten  by  subtracting.  At  the  end  of  the  year,  this 
results  in  some  error,  as  some  will  die  that  are  not  found. 
145.  Animal  records.  —  If  many  cows  are  kept,  it  is 
often  desirable  to  keep  a  record  of  each  animal.  One  of 
the  easiest  ways  to  do  this  is  to  use  a  blank  book  with 
numbered  pages.  If  ear  tags  are  used,  the  pages  should 
be  numbered  to  correspond  with  the  ear  tags.  One  or 
two  pages  will  give  room  enough  to  keep  a  complete 
record  of  a  cow  or  horse  for  a  lifetime.  Figure  61  shows 
a  page  from  such  a  record  book.  It  gives  a  complete 
history  of  a  cow  whose  ear  tag  number  is  24.  Two  of 
her  calves  were  kept.  Their  records  were  on  pages  27  and 
31.  At  the  bottom  of  the  page,  columns  are  ruled  for  the 
cow's  milk  record. 


RELATION   OF    SIZE    OF   ANIMAL   TO    EFFICIENCY 

146.  Size  of  cows  and  profits.  —  Of  two  animals  that 
are  equally  efficient  users  of  food,  the  larger  animal  is 
usually  much  more  profitable.  Many  tests  of  dairy  cows 
have  been  made  to  see  which  ones  produced  the  most  butter 
for  feed  used.     These  tests  do  not  indicate  which  is  the 


POINT  OF  VIEIV  ON  LIVE-STOCK  PROBLEMS    223 


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224  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

most  profitable  animal  because  labor  and  barn  costs  are 
not  counted.  The  butter  produced  for  a  given  amount 
of  barn  room  and  labor  is  nearly  as  important  as  the 
amount  of  butter  produced  for  a  given  amount  of  feed. 
It  is  the  animals  that  use  large  amounts  of  feed  and  use 
that  feed  efficiently  that  are  most  profitable. 

It  takes  very  little  more  barn  room  and  usually  no 
more  labor  to  care  for  a  1300-pound  cow  than  it  does  for  a 
900-pound  cow.  Twenty  cows,  each  weighing  1200 
pounds,  weigh  as  much  and,  if  equally  efficient,  will  give  as 
much  milk  as  24  cows  averaging  1000  pounds.  By  the 
usual  method  of  figuring,  the  24  cows  would  be  as  profitable 
as  the  20.  But  the  fixed  charges,  aside  from  feed,  were 
found  to  be  $65  in  Connecticut  and  $29  in  Minnesota. 
Most  of  these  other  costs  are  nearly  as  great  for  small  as 
for  large  cows.  The  labor,  barn  room,  light,  medicines, 
veterinary,  and  some  other  expenses  are  practically  the 
same  for  small  as  for  large  cows.  In  Connecticut,  these 
items  were  found  to  cost  about  $39  per  year  and  in  Minne- 
sota about  $23  per  year.^  The  20  large  cows  would  appear 
to  be  about  $156  a  year  more  profitable  in  Connecticut 
and  $92  more  profitable  in  Minnesota. 

The  larger  animals  of  any  breed  are  much  more  eco- 
nomical of  labor  and  barn  room,  and  usually  give  as  much 
or  more  milk  for  the  food  eaten.  Table  33  shows  the  re- 
lation of  size  of  cow  to  other  factors  for  355  cows  in  Wis- 
consin.2  The  larger  cows  used  their  feed  with  the  same  effi- 
ciency as  the  smaller  ones.  In  fact,  the  very  largest  ones 
were  a  trifle  more  efficient  than  the  small  ones.     The 


'  Connecticut,  Bulletin  73,  and  Minnesota,  Bulletin  124. 

*  The  weights  were  determined  by  a  system  of  measurements  (Wis- 
consin, Bulletin  226,  p.  8).  The  uniformity  of  the  results  makes  it  appear 
that  actual  weights  would  give  the  same  results. 


POINT  OF   VIEW  ON  LIVE-STOCK  PROBLEMS      225 


returns  per  cow  above  food  cost  varied  from  $54  for  the 
small  cows  to  $88  for  the  largest  cows. 

Table  33.  —  Relation  of  Size  of  Cows  to  Value  of 
Product  above  Food  Cost  ^ 


Weight  of 

Aver- 

NUMBEH 

Pounds 
of 

Value 

Value 

Value  of 
Product 

Value  of 
Product 

Cows 

age 
Weight 

Cows 

Butter- 
fat 

Product 

Feed 

for  $1 
IN  Feed 

Food 
Cost 

900      and 

under 

847 

87 

366.2 

$114.52 

$60.32 

$1.90 

$54.20 

901-1000 

952 

82 

417.8 

131.22 

69.86 

1.88 

61.36 

1001-1100 

1071 

53 

447.8 

142.56 

76.28 

1.87 

66.28 

1101-1200 

1175 

60 

477.7 

155.02 

82.81 

1.87 

72.21 

1201-1300 

1276 

31 

.'■)06.2 

163..52 

91.51 

1.79 

72.01 

1301-1400 

1379 

26 

525.8 

171.79 

92.15 

1.86 

79.64 

Over  1400 

1556 

16 

566.6 

184.61 

96.60 

1.91 

88.01 

'  Data  furnished  by  F.  W.  WoU,  for  cows  whose  records  are  reported 
in  Wisconsin,  Bulletin  226. 

A  herd  of  10  of  the  cows  weighing  1556  pounds  each, 
would  weigh  more  and  give  more  milk  than  18  of  the  847- 
pound  cows.  According  to  the  Connecticut  results,  the 
larger  cows  would  cost  about  $300  a  year  less  for  labor, 
barn  room,  and  the  like.  By  methods  used  in  Minnesota, 
they  would  cost  about  $184  a  year  less  to  keep.  If  the  10 
cows  could  be  purchased  at  the  same  cost  as  the  18,  they 
would  make  a  very  much  better  investment.  Farmers  are 
correct  in  their  almost  universal  prej  udice  against  small  cows. 

As  in  most  tests  of  large  numbers,  the  Holsteins  pro- 
duced the  most  butter,  with  Guernseys  second,  and  Jer- 
seys third.  These  differences  are  primarily  due  to  the 
size  of  the  cows.  When  cows  of  the  same  size  are  com- 
pared, there  does  not  seem  to  be  a  great  difference  in  pro- 
duction.    The  size  of  each  of  these  breeds,  particularly 


226  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

of  the  Jerseys  and  Guernseys,  is  being  increased  rapidly  in 
America  by  selection  of  high  producers.  There  are  con- 
ditions that  offset  the  economy  of  labor  in  using  large  cows. 
In  regions  where  the  pastures  are  very  hilly  or  very  poor, 
small,  active  cows  thrive  better.  Large  cows  usually  pay 
best  on  rich,  level  pastures. 

Thus  far  the  small,  light  animals  have  been  most  popu- 
lar in  the  South.  Whether  this  is  due  to  poor  pastures, 
heat,  or  some  other  cause  is  not  determined.  It  may  be  a 
fundamental  difference  in  adaptation  or  may  be  because 
the  larger  animals  have  not  been  introduced, 

147.  Size  of  horses. —  The  same  point  applies  in  the 
use  of  horses,  provided  one  has  fairly  steady  heavy  work. 
Three  1400-pound  horses  will  usually  do  more  heavy  work, 
eat  less  feed,  and  require  less  labor  and  barn  room  than 
4  horses  each  weighing  1050  pounds.  For  this  reason, 
heavy  horses  sell  for  much  more  per  pound  than  light 
horses. 

When  1000-pound  horses  sell  in  Chicago  for  $140,  equally 
good  horses  weighing  1300  pounds  bring  about  $200  and 
1700-pound  horses  $300.  The  corresponding  prices  per 
pound  are  14,  15,  and  18  cents.  If  the  first  1000  pounds 
on  a  horse  is  worth  14  cents  a  pound,  the  next  300 
pounds  is  worth  20  cents,  and  a  further  addition  of  400 
pounds  is  worth  25  cents  per  pound. ^ 

Farmers  on  some  farms  do  not  have  full  work  for  horses. 
Such  farmers  prefer  the  small  ones,  as  they  can  be  worked 
hard  when  needed  and  have  plenty  of  time  to  rest  between 
work.     In  regions  where  only  a  small  amount  of  field  work 

1  M.  W.  Harper  studied  the  sales  of  horses  on  the  Chicago  market  in 
the  fall  of  1912.  His  estiniatos  of  sales  were  :  900  to  1100  pound  horses, 
$120-$150;  1200  to  1400  pound  horses,  $175-$225;  and  1500  to  1800 
pound  horses,  $250-$300. 


POINT  OF   VIEW  ON  LIVE-STOCK  PROBLEMS      227 

is  done,  the  light  horses  predominate.  It  is  sometimes 
said  that  hght  horses  are  best  adapted  to  farming  in  a 
hilly  country.  It  is  the  absence  of  work  rather  than  the 
presence  of  hills  that  makes  them  best.  In  hilly  farming 
regions,  where  farming  is  prosperous  and  where  there  is 
continuous  work  for  horses,  heavy  horses  are  preferred. 
A  very  good  combination  for  a  farm  that  keeps  six  horses 
is  to  have  four  heavy  ones  and  a  team  of  light  horses  that 
can  be  used  on  the  road  and  for  the  lighter  farm  work. 
In  most  parts  of  the  country,  the  heavy  horses  should  be 
mares  and  colts  should  be  raised. 

Large  horses  do  not  stand  heat  so  well  as  small  ones. 
This  is  strikingly  evident  in  some  parts  of  the  South. 

148.  Size  of  animal  and  meat  production.  —  Of  two 
animals  that  at  the  same  age  make  the  same  gains  from  a 
given  amount  of  feed  the  large  one  is  the  more  desirable, 
because  the  labor  of  caring  for  them  is  about  the  same. 
This  point  is  not  so  important  as  with  cows  or  horses  be- 
cause the  labor  item  is  much  less  with  meat  animals. 

The  age  at  which  to  sell  meat  animals  is  a  different  ques- 
tion. As  feed  becomes  more  expensive  the  age  at  which 
meat  animals  should  be  sold  is  reduced.  It  pays  a  farmer 
to  keep  a  meat  animal  so  long  as  the  gain  produced  is 
worth  enough  more  than  the  feed  to  pay  for  the  other 
costs. 

PURE  BREED  VS.    GRADE  STOCK 

149.  Profits  from  pure-bred  stock.  —  The  raising 
of  pure-bred  stock  is  a  business  requiring  capital.  Farm- 
ers who  are  very  short  of  capital  will  usually  do  better 
by  investing  in  land,  equipment,  and  good  grade  stock 
rather  than  by  going  into  pure-bred  stock. 

If  one  is  to  do  much  with  the  business,  it  requires  that 


228  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

a  considerable  number  of  animals  be  kept.  This  is  par- 
ticularly true,  if  the  animals  are  very  valuable.  Suppose 
that  a  farmer  has  cows  that  are  so  good  that  they  should 
be  bred  to  a  $500  bull.  The  cost  of  keeping  such  a  bull 
in  most  dairy  sections  will  be  S50  to  $75  per  year  for  feed, 
as  much  more  for  labor,  barn,  and  other  expenses,  and 
$75  to  $125  per  year  for  interest  and  depreciation.  The 
total  annual  cost  will  usually  be  over  $200.  If  only  10 
cows  are  kept,  this  cost  will  be  $20  per  cow,  but  if  thirty 
cows  are  kept,  the  cost  will  be  one-third  as  much.  Only 
those  who  have  large  numbers  can  afford  to  have  high- 
priced  stock.  By  having  large  numbers  they  reduce  the 
cost  of  male  service  and  have  many  animals  to  be  raised 
in  price  by  the  advertising  that  the  valuable  animals  give. 

If  one  has  the  necessary  capital  and  experience  it  usu- 
ally pays  to  keep  pure-bred  stock.  When  the  right  breed 
of  stock  is  kept,  the  production  is,  on  the  average,  con- 
siderably better  than  with  grades.  If  the  wrong  breed  is 
kept,  it  may  be  less.  A  meat  breed  of  hens,  when  eggs 
are  the  important  product,  is  usually  worse  than  common 
stock.  Grade  dairy  cattle  are  better  than  pure-bred 
shorthorns  in  a  dairy  section,  but  are  not  so  good  as  pure- 
breds  of  a  dairy  t3^pe.  The  breed  selected  should  usually 
be  the  one  that  is  most  popular  in  the  region,  because  the 
neighbors  are  usually  the  best  market  for  the  surplus  stock. 

Pure-bred  stock  also  requires  much  more  attention  than 
grade  stock.  It  is  necessary  that  both  the  owner  and 
hired  help  be  much  more  careful  than  with  common  stock. 
If  the  stock  is  very  valuable,  it  becomes  exceedingly  im- 
portant that  there  be  no  unreliable  person  about. 

If  high-producing  pure-bred  stock  is  kept,  the  cost  is 
much  greater  than  for  grades.  The  chances  for  large 
profits,   as  well   as  of  large   losses,  are  increased.     One 


POINT   OF  VIEW   ON   LIVE-STOCK  PROBLEMS      229 

noted  breeder  of  pure-bred  cattle  reports  that  it  costs 
him  $169  for  feed  to  grow  a  heifer  calf  to  30  months  old.^ 
Whole  milk  was  counted  at  $1.80  and  skim  milk  at  20 
cents  per  hundred.  Grain  was  charged  at  the  actual  cost 
at  the  railroad  station ;  hay  at  $16  per  ton,  and  corn 
silage  at  $2.50  per  ton.  None  of  these  charges  is  high. 
The  silage  is  much  too  low  for  the  region.  Silage  is  usu- 
ally worth  one-third  as  much  as  hay.  It  will  be  seen  that 
these  charges  do  not  include  labor,  bedding,  barn  room, 
or  any  other  of  the  many  additional  charges.  The  utter 
absurdity  of  the  common  practice  of  assuming  that  such 
stock  can  be  grown  at  the  same  cost  as  ordinary  stock  will 
be  seen  at  once.  Every  item  of  expense  is  greater  when 
better  stock  is  kept.  When  the  business  is  successful,  as 
it  is  on  this  man's  farm,  the  profits  are  much  better  than 
could  be  secured  by  less  intensive  methods. 

The  real  value  of  pure-bred  animals  is  because,  on  the 
average,  they  are  better  producers.  The  best  breeds  of 
pure-bred  hogs  make  pork  at  less  cost.  The  best  breeds 
of  pure-bred  dairy  cows  give  more  milk  for  their  feed. 
The  best  breeds  of  beef  cattle  give  more  beef.  However, 
there  are  high  grades  of  all  kinds  of  animals  that  are  prac- 
tically pure-bred.  Such  animals  may  have  all  the  merits 
of  pure-breds,  except  that  they  cannot  be  registered,  and 
so  the  young  cannot  be  sold  at  high  prices  for  breeding 
purposes. 

Of  the  23  dairy  farms  included  among  the  highly  profit- 
able farms  on  page  134,  seven  derived  considerable  income 
from  pure-bred  cattle.  The  other  10  kept  mostly  high- 
grade  Holstein  cows.  Most  of  them  kept  pure-bred  bulls, 
and  a  few  kept  some  pure-bred  cows.  The  two  successful 
poultry  fai'ms  had  pure-bred  White  Leghorn  hens. 

'  New  York  State  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bulletin  35,  p.  1003. 


230  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

The  usual  method  of  figuring  to  show  the  profit  on 
pure-bred  stock  is  to  count  only  the  increased  receipts 
and  forget  the  increased  feed,  care,  interest,  and  deprecia- 
tion. The  interest  and  depreciation  on  a  $40  cow  is  $4 
per  year ;  on  a  $200  cow  it  is  $36.  One  must  give  atten- 
tion to  both  sides  of  the  question.  In  general,  the  extra 
profits  to  be  derived  from  pure-bred  stock  are  largely  offset 
by  the  higher  cost.  Pure-bred  stock  usually  pays  better, 
but  not  so  much  better  as  to  justify  one  who  is  very  short 
of  capital  in  sacrificing  too  much  at  other  points  in  order 
to  have  pure-breds. 

150.  "Grading  up"  pure-breds.  —  It  is  just  as  easy 
to  take  pure-bred  stock  of  ordinary  quality  and  improve 
it  by  the  use  of  a  good  sire  as  it  is  to  improve  common 
stock.  After  the  improvement  has  been  made,  the  pedi- 
gree goes  with  it.  Many  times  it  pays  a  young  man  who 
is  short  of  capital  to  buy  some  low-priced  pure-breds  and 
improve  them  so  that,  in  the  course  of  time,  he  will  have 
an  excellent  herd.  Most  of  the  noted  breeders  of  pure- 
bred stock  started  in  just  this  way.  It  is  a  very  modest 
way  of  starting,  but  if  one  is  patient,  it  may  pay  well  in 
time. 

Many  beginners  make  the  mistake  of  buying  high-priced 
stock  when  they  have  neither  the  experience  nor  capital  nec- 
essary to  make  a  success  of  it.  Only  experienced  persons 
who  keep  large  numbers  can  afford  to  buy  high-priced 
animals.  The  beginner  had  best  buy  low-priced  or  medium- 
priced  animals  and  test  his  ability  in  improving  these  while 
he  is  learning  the  business. 

151.  Pure-bred  poultry.  —  Poultry  multiphes  so  fast 
that  any  one  can  keep  pure-breds,  if  he  desires,  with  very 
small  cost  in  starting.  If  only  a  few  hens  are  kept  for  home 
use,  the  chickens  are  usually  raised  by  hens,  and  it  is  nee- 


POINT  OF  VIEW  ON  LIVE-STOCK  PROBLEMS     231 

essary  to  have  a  breed  that  will  set  well.  It  may  pay  to 
keep  pure-breds,  but  the  difference  will  be  small,  because 
the  entire  enterprise  is  so  small.  It  may  not  be  worth  the 
bother  to  keep  them  pure.  But  if  any  considerable  num- 
ber of  hens  are  kept,  they  should  be  pure-bred. 

A  year's  test  of  50  White  Leghorn  pullets,  as  compared 
with  50  mixed  common  pullets,  was  conducted  at  the  West 
Virginia  Experiment  Station.  ^  The  Leghorns  laid  an 
average  of  117  eggs.  The  mongrels  ate  more  feed,  but  laid 
an  average  of  only  96  eggs.  The  mongrels  gained  in 
weight  an  average  of  one  pound  per  head  more  than  the 
Leghorns.  After  considering  feed,  meat,  and  eggs,  the 
Leghorns  gave  40  cents  more  returns  per  hen  than  the  mon- 
grels. 

DEPRECIATION    ON    LIVE-STOCK 

152..  Depreciation  on  cattle.  —  Not  only  is  the  cost 
of  feed  and  care  more  with  high-priced  stock,  but  interest 
and  depreciation  are  much  more.  In  New  York,^  it  was 
found  that  the  deaths  among  4343  cows  averaged  L2  per 
cent.  The  same  average  was  found  in  Minnesota,  but 
the  deaths  were  less  than  this  for  common  cattle,  and 
more  than  this  figure  for  pure-bred  and  highly  graded 
cattle.3 

In  New  York,  the  depreciation  due  to  death  and  loss  on 
cows  sold  was  found  to  be  4  per  cent  on  S40  cows.  The 
average  life  of  cows  was  9  years,  or  about  7  years  in  milk. 
If  we  assume  the  same  death  rate,  and  $34  as  beef  value, 
we  can  find  the  approximate  depreciation  on  cows  of 
different  values. 

>  West  Virginia,  Bulletin  102,  pp.  272  to  274. 

«  New  York,  Cornell  Bulletin  295,  pp.  477  and  478. 

'  Minnesota,  Bulletin  124,  p.  102. 


232 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


Interest  and  Depreciation  on  Cows  of  Different  Values 
WITH  Beef  Value  op  $34 


Value  of  Cow 

Depreciation  per  Year 

Interest  per 
Year  at  6% 

Total 

$40      ... 
100      ..     . 
200      ... 
300      ... 

3% 
10 
12 
13 

$1.20 
10.00 
24.00 
39.00 

$2.40 
6.00 

12.00 
18.00 

$4 
16 
36 
57 

The  depreciation  on  $100  cows  can  be  determined  as 
follows :  of  7000  such  cows,  the  loss  from  death  would  be 
84  per  year.  The  remaining  916  of  the  1000  that  would 
be  replaced  every  year  would  be  sold  for  beef.  At  $34, 
these  would  bring  $31,144.  This  would  leave  a  loss  of 
$68,856,  or  nearly  10  per  cent.^ 

No  matter  how  valuable  the  cows  are,  the  depreciation 
could  not  exceed  i  or  about  14  per  cent,  so  long  as  the 
average  period  of  usefulness  is  7  years. 

The  depreciation  and  interest  on  $40  cows  is  $4  per  year. 
On  $100  cows  it  is  $16,  and  on  $300  cows,  it  is  $57. 

The  care  given  to  pure-bred  animals  is  also  much  more 
than  for  grades.  It  will  be  seen  at  once  that  the  statement 
that  it  costs  no  more  to  keep  a  pure-bred  than  a  grade 
is  far  from  correct.  Pure-bred  stock  costs  much  more 
and  usually  gives  very  much  higher  returns. 

In  1910,  there  were  33,662,194  cows  and  heifers  born 
before  1909  in  the  United  States.     Most  of  these  were  two 

'  The  exact  formula  for  depreciation,  when  animals  have  a  meat  value 
in  old  age  or  other  value  at  death,  is : 

Value / 1 Deaths  per  100\  ^^^^^ 

No.  of  years  of  use      yNo.  of  years  of  use  100  / 

moat  value. 

The  depreciation  on  stock  that  has  no  meat  value  or  value  at  death 
is  always  the  same  per  cent  for  animals  living  to  the  same  age. 


POINT  OF  VIEW  ON   LIVE-STOCK  PROBLEMS      233 

years  old  or  older.  At  the  same  time,  there  were  7,365,265 
yearling  heifers.     This  is  one  heifer  for  each  4.6  cows.^ 

Ten  years  before,  there  was  one  heifer  for  each  4.1  cows. 
The  change  in  date  of  the  Census  has  some  effect,  but  it 
appears  that  the  length  of  time  that  cows  are  kept  has  in- 
creased, so  that  cows  are  now  kept  until  they  are  a  little 
over  6  years  old.  Dairy  cows  are  kept  longer  than  beef 
cows. 

On  New  York  farms,  there  were  7  cows  for  each  yearling 
heifer  in  1910,  indicating  that  the  average  cow  is  probably 
kept  until  she  is  between  8  and  9  years  old.  This  also 
agrees  with  the  detailed  study  in  Tompkins  County. 

In  Wisconsin,  there  was  one  yearling  heifer  for  each 
4.7  cows.  In  Iowa,  there  was  one  heifer  for  3.6  cows. 
As  feed  becomes  more  expensive  cows  are  kept  longer. 

As  population  increases,  the  dairy  cows  increase  faster 
than  beef  cows.  During  the  ten  years  1900  to  1910  dairy 
cows  increased  20  per  cent  and  other  cows  only  2  per  cent. 

153.  Depreciation  on  horses.  —  The  depreciation  on 
animals  that  have  no  meat  value  is  the  same  per  cent  re- 
gardless of  the  value  of  the  animals,  provided  the  high- 
priced  animals  live  to  the  same  age  as  the  low-priced  ones. 

By  making  a  study  of  Census  figures  and  the  excess  of 
exports  over  imports,  it  appears  that  one  colt  is  raised  for 
11.7  horses  older  than  yearlings,  in  order  to  keep  up  the 
supply  of  horses.  On  the  average,  two-year-old  horses 
may,  therefore,  be  expected  to  live  about  12  more  years.^ 

'  If  correction  is  made  for  the  increasing  number  of  cows,  the  difference 
is  not  enough  to  change  the  ratio.  Cows  increased  during  the  preceding 
ten  years  at  the  rate  of  391,857  per  year,  so  that  the  number  of  heifers 
will  probably  be  enough  to  provide  34,054,051  cows.  According  to  these 
figures,  the  average  cow  is  kept  4.6  years. 

'  In  1910,  there  were  20,370,477  horses  older  than  yearlings  (born 
before  1909)  in  the  United  States.     This  includes  horses  in  cities  as  well 


234  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

The  average  depreciation  on  a  large  number  of  horses 
would,  therefore,  be  a  little  over  8  per  cent.  Horses  usu- 
ally do  little  work  before  they  are  three  years  old,  and  do 
not  do  full  work  until  about  4  years  old.  For  work  ani- 
mals, the  depreciation  would,  therefore,  average  about 
10  per  cent. 

Horses  usually  rise  in  selling  value  until  they  are  4  or  5 
years  old.  The  selling  value  does  not  drop  much  until 
they  are  8  or  9  years  old.  If  one  buys  horses  of  this  age, 
the  depreciation  will  be  much  more  than  10  per  cent. 
Probably  15  to  18  per  cent  is  none  too  high  to  estimate  on 
horses  8  or  9  years  old.  Such  a  horse  should  certainly  pay 
for  himself  in  6  years. 

There  is  one  basis  for  the  high  prices  paid  for  8-year-old 
horses.  Such  horses,  if  sound,  may  last  about  as  long  in 
cities  as  younger  ones,  but  this  is  not  true  on  farms.  Usu- 
ally it  is  better  for  a  farmer  to  buy  young  horses. 

154.  Depreciation  on  mules.  —  Similar  calculations 
from  the  Census  figures  indicate  that  one  colt  must  be 
raised  for  each  13  mules,  older  than  yearlings.^ 

This  would  indicate  that,  on  the  average,  a  mule  lives 
a  year  longer  than  a  horse.  This  agrees  with  the  popular 
opinion.     This  is  an  important  point  in  favor  of  mules. 

as  on  farms.  There  were  1,764,188  yearling  colts.  During  the  preceding 
ten  years,  horses  increased  at  the  rate  of  199,112  per  year.  Exports 
exceeded  imports  by  an  average  of  42,411  per  year.  The  number  of 
colts  raised  seems  to  be  enough  to  provide  for  241,523  more  horses,  or 
20,612,000.  This  would  make  11.7  horses  for  each  yearling  colt.  It 
appears  that  the  average  two-year  old  colt  may  be  expected  to  live  11 
or  12  more  years.  Similar  calculations  from  the  1900  Census  indicate 
that  one  colt  raised  for  each  12.7  horses  would  keep  up  the  supply. 

1  In  1910,  there  were  4,027,340  mules  in  the  United  States  born  before 
1909.  The  average  rate  of  increase  for  the  preceding  10  years  was 
110,743  per  year,  and  the  average  exports  14,313  per  year.  The  315,987 
yearling  colts  appear  to  be  sufficient  to  provide  4,152,399  mules,  or  13.1 
for  each  colt. 


POINT   OF    VIEW  ON  LIVE-STOCK  PROBLEMS      235 

155.  Depreciation  on  sheep.  —  Sheep  are  short-lived 
animals,  hence  the  depreciation  on  them  is  high.  In  one 
county  in  New  York,  the  deaths  among  mature  sheep  av- 
eraged 39  per  thousand,  while  the  deaths  among  cows  aver- 
aged 12  per  thousand.  The  loss  in  value  of  old  sheep  sold 
was  more  than  the  loss  from  death.  With  sheep  having 
an  average  value  of  $6.67,  the  loss  from  both  sources  was 
found  to  be  10  per  cent.^  This  would  be  a  charge  of  67 
cents  per  year  on  such  sheep.  If  we  add  interest  at  6  per 
cent,  the  interest  and  depreciation  amount  to  SI. 07  per 
year  for  each  sheep.  The  cost  is  higher  on  high-priced 
sheep  and  less  on  low-priced  ones. 

The  Census  of  1890  reported  deaths  among  sheep  as  1.7 
per  cent  killed  by  dogs,  and  6.7  per  cent  died  from  disease 
or  weather,  or  a  total  of  8.4  per  cent.  We  do  not  know 
how  many  of  these  were  lambs. 

156.  Depreciation  on  hogs.  —  Hogs  grow  enough  so 
that  old  ones  are  worth  more  than  young  ones,  but  the  losses 
from  death  are  very  heavy.  The  Census  of  1890  reported 
the  loss  from  death  as  17  per  cent,  but  we  do  not  know  how 
many  of  these  were  pigs. 

157.  Depreciation  on  hens.  —  Deaths  of  hens  are  usu- 
ally estimated  at  one  per  cent  a  month,  or  12  per  cent  a 
year.  This  may  be  too  high.  In  some  exceptionally  well 
managed  flocks,  the  writer  has  found  it  to  vary  from  5  to 
10  per  cent  a  year. 

The  depreciation  on  common  stock  is  not  much  more 
than  the  losses  by  death,  because  the  meat  value  is  nearly 
equal  to  the  value  of  a  pullet,  but  on  higher  priced  stock 
the  depreciation  is  very  high. 

If  we  start  with  100  pullets,  we  may  expect  to  have  88 
at  the  end  of  the  first  year.     If  the  hens  are  then  sold  for 

■  New  York,  Cornell  Bulletin  295,  p.  494. 


236  FAIIM  MANAGEMENT 

meat  at  40  cents  apiece,  they  would  bring  $35.20.  On 
pullets  worth  50  cents  apiece,  this  would  give  a  loss  of 
$14.80,  or  30  per  cent. 

If  the  same  pullets  were  kept  two  years,  we  would 
expect  to  have  77  left  to  sell  for  $30.80.  This  would  be  a 
loss  of  $19.20   for  the  two  years,  or  20  per  cent  a  year. 

If  kept  three  years,  we  would  expect  to  have  68  still 
living  to  sell  for  $27.20.  This  would  make  a  loss  of  $22.80 
for  the  three  years,  or  15  per  cent  a  year. 

The  table  on  page  237  shows  similar  calculations  for 
pullets  worth  $1  and  $2. 

If  $2  pullets  are  sold  at  the  end  of  one  year,  the  depre- 
ciation would  be  $1.65  per  hen,  or  82  per  cent.  This  would 
be  equal  to  7.5  dozen  eggs  at  the  average  price  in  Ohio 
(page  576) .  Evidently,  one  could  not  use  such  pullets  for 
producing  eggs  to  sell  at  wholesale  prices,  unless  they  are 
kept  more  than  one  year.  If  such  pullets  were  kept  until 
3  years  old,  the  depreciation  would  be  58  cents  a  year,  equal 
to  2.6  dozen  eggs  a  year. 

It  is  evident  that  common  stock  may  be  sold  young,  but 
that  high-priced  poultry  should  be  kept  until  it  is  older. 
If  the  meat  value  is  40  cents,  and  pullets  are  worth  50 
cents,  it  would  not  pay  to  keep  old  hens  unless  they  laid 
within  10  cents'  worth  of  as  many  eggs  as  a  pullet.  No 
old  hens  are  likely  to  do  this  well. 

If  pullets  are  worth  $1,  it  would  pay  to  keep  a  hen  as 
long  as  her  eggs  are  worth  within  60  cents  of  those  laid  by 
a  pullet.  This  is  a  difference  of  two  or  three  dozen.  Hens 
two  or  three  years  old  will  usually  do  so  well. 

If  pullets  are  worth  $2,  it  will  pay  to  keep  a  hen  as  long 
as  her  eggs  are  worth  within  $1.60  of  those  laid  by  a  pul- 
let. This  would  be  a  difference  of  7  dozen  at  the  prices  in 
Ohio.     If  any  pullet  is  really  worth  $2  for  producing  mar- 


POINT   OF   VIEW  ON  LIVE-STOCK  PROBLEMS      237 

ket  eggs,  it  would  appear  best  to  keep  her  as  long  as  she 
lives.  However,  if  eggs  from  such  stock  are  worth  so  much 
to  sell  for  breeding  purposes  that  the  average  price  of  all 
her  eggs  sold  is  60  cents  a  dozen,  then  the  old  hen  should 
go  when  her  egg  production  falls  3  dozen  below  the  pullet. 
This  would  probably  be  two  or  three  years. 

Depreciation  on  Hens  that  have  a  Meat  Value  of  40  Cents 
AND  A  Death  Rate  of  12  per  Cent 


Hens  kept  one  year. 

Depreciation     .     .     . 

Per  cent  depreciation 
Hens  kept  two  years. 

Depreciation     .     .     . 

Depreciation  per  year 

Per  cent  depreciation 
Hens  kept  three  years. 

Depreciation     .     .     . 

Depreciation  per  year 

Per  cent  depreciation 


Value  of  Pullets 


$.50 


.15 
30% 

.19 
.10 

20% 

.23 

.08 
15% 


$1.00 


.65 

65% 

.69 
.35 

35% 

.73 
.24 

24% 


$2.00 


$1.65 

82% 

$1.69 

.85 
43% 

$1.73 

.58 
29% 


The  price  of  eggs,  the  price  at  which  old  hens  are  sold, 
the  relative  value  of  old  and  young  hens  for  breeding  pur- 
poses, and  various  other  factors,  affect  the  results.  The 
above  discussion  shows  the  method  of  figuring. 


INCREASING    VALUE    OF    YOUNG    STOCK 

158.  Increasing  value  of  valuable  young  stock  usually 
more  than  offsets  depreciation.  —  The  young  stock  from 
valuable  animals  usually  rises  in  price  fast  enough  to  more 
than  make  up  for  the  high  depreciation  on  their  parents. 


238  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

In  making  calculations,  this  point  is  nearly  always  con- 
sidered, but  the  higher  depreciation  on  parents  is  forgotten- 
One  must  consider  both  sides  of  the  question  if  he  is  to 
arrive  at  the  truth. 

References 

Feeds  and  Feeding,  W.  A.  Henry. 

New  York,  Cornell  Bulletin  295,  pp.  473-539. 


CHAPTER  7 
SIZE    OF   FARMS 

Throughout  this  book,  the  word  farm  is  used  to 
mean  all  the  land  operated  by  one  farmer.  If  a  plantation 
of  1000  acres  is  cropped  by  20  tenants  by  any  kind  of  a 
tenant  system,  each  of  the  tracts  farmed  by  one  tenant  is 
called  a  farm.  But  if  the  entire  area  is  run  as  one  farm 
by  hired  labor,  then  it  would  be  a  1000-acre  farm.  If 
there  were  two  separate  centers  of  operation,  with  stock 
and  equipment  at  each  center,  and  each  in  charge  of  a 
hired  manager,  it  would  be  called  two  farms.  In  each  of 
these  cases,  the  owner  is  likely  to  speak  of  the  area  as 
"  my  farm,"  but  he  would  really  have  20  farms  in  the 
first  case,  1  in  the  second,  and  2  in  the  third.  • 

159.  The  American  family-farm.  —  The  typical  Amer- 
ican farm  is  a  family-farm ;  one  of  such  a  size  that  the 
family  does  most  of  the  farm  work,  with  some  hired  help. 
In  1909,  only  46  per  cent  of  the  farms  had  any  hired  labor. 
In  1899,  there  were  a  little  over  1.5  male  workers  engaged 
in  agriculture  for  each  farm.  This  includes  the  operator, 
members  of  the  family,  and  hired-men. 

There  is  no  large  section  of  the  United  States  where 
there  is  an  average  of  a  hired-man  for  each  farm. 

There  is,  of  course,  great  variation.  There  are  many 
farm  families  that  have  more  labor  than  the  farm  calls  for, 
so  that  members  of  the  family  hire  out  to  other  farmers, 
or  go  to  the  city  to  work.  The  majority  of  farm  families 
do  the  work  of  the  farm,  with  the  aid  of  a  little  hired  help 

239 


240 


FABM  MANAGEMENT 


during  harvest.  Other  farmers  hire  a  man  by  the  year. 
A  very  small  percentage  hire  more  than  two  or  three  men 
by  the  year.  Even  with  three  men,  the  farm  still  has  the 
characteristic  of  the  family-farm.  The  farmer  and  his  sons 
work  with  the  men. 

Table  34.  —  Average  Size  of  Farms  in  the  United  States  ^ 


Average  Area 

Average  Improved 

Average  Area  in 

PER  Farm 

Area  per  Farm 

Principal  Crops' 

1850    .... 

203 

78 

_ 

1860 

199 

80 

— 

1870 

153 

71 

— 

1880 

134 

71 

41 

1890 

137 

78 

47 

1900 

147 

72 

47 

1910 

138 

75 

46 

'  Twelfth  Census,  Vol.  V,  pp.  xxxi,  688,  692. 

2  Number  of  acres  of  barley,  buckwheat,  corn,  rice,  oats,  rye,  wheat, 
hay,  tobacco,  cotton,  hops,  and  sugar  cane. 

Table  35.  —  Distribution  of  Farm  Land  in  Different 
Sized  Farms  in  the  United  States  in  1910 


Area  in  Acres 

Per  Cent  of 
All   Farms 

Per  Cent  of 
All  Farm  Land 

Per  Cent  of 

All  Improved 

Farm  Land 

Under  20  acres 

13.2 

1.0 

1.7 

20-  49 

22.2 

5.2 

7.6 

50-  99 

22.6 

11.7 

14.9 

100-174 

23.8 

23.4 

26.9 

175-499 

15.4 

30.2 

33.8 

500-999 

2.0 

9.5 

8.5 

1000  and  over 

0.8 

10.0 

6.5 

The  whole  policy  of  this  country,  since  the  passage  of 
the  Preemption  Act  in  1841,  has  been  for  the  establishment 


SIZE  OF  FARMS  241 

of  farms  of  this  kind.  Most  of  the  acts  have  indicated 
that  160  acres  was  considered  the  most  desirable  size  of 
farm.  The  first  Homestead  Act  in  1862  allowed  soldiers 
160  acres  of  land,  and  other  persons  80  acres.  This  was 
the  first  land  act  that  limited  the  area  to  such  small  tracts. 
At  the  time  when  this  act  was  passed,  80  acres  provided 
as  full  a  year's  work  for  a  family  as  three  or  four  times  this 
area  does  now.  The  same  policy  put  into  effect  to-day 
would  call  for  larger  areas. 

Not  only  has  the  government  policy  favored  family- 
farms,  but  economic  conditions  cause  our  farms  to  change 
to  the  size  that  is  best  for  such  a  farm.  The  farms  that 
are  too  large  are  being  divided,  and  those  that  are  too 
small  are  being  combined. 

160.  How  large  should  a  family-farm  be?  —  Most  of 
the  discussion  of  size  of  farms  is  confused,  because  it  deals 
with  extremes.  Comparison  is  made  of  small  family-farms 
with  large  farms  where  the  owner  does  no  work.  For  this 
reason,  the  usual  discussions  of  the  subject  have  little 
bearing  on  the  question  of  the  best  size  of  family-farm. 
The  great  middle  class  is  ignored.  The  farm  that  is  large 
enough  to  employ  the  owner  and  one  or  two  sons  or  hired- 
men  has  a  great  advantage  over  either  the  very  large  or 
very  small  farm.  There  are  comparatively  few  of  the 
large  bonanza  farms. 

If  we  omit  the  minor  types  of  farming,  such  as  truck 
growing,  floriculture,  etc.,  we  may  say  that  farms  in  the 
north  half  of  the  United  States  of  less  than  100  acres 
are  small,  farms  of  160  acres  medium  sized,  and  farms  of 
200  or  300  acres  are  large.  Which  of  these  is  best?  All 
these  are  of  the  family-farm  type.  The  operator  works 
with  his  sons  or  with  his  hired-men ;  any  discussion  that 
deals  with  bonanza  farms  has  no  bearing  on  the  problem. 


242  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

Many  books  and  articles  have  been  written  about  the 
deUghts  of  farming  on  a  few  acres.  Such  interesting  titles 
as  "  Three  Acres  and  Liberty,"  "  Ten  Acres  Enough," 
and  "  Five  Acres  Too  Much,"  have  appeared,  and  now  we 
have  a  "  Little  Farm  Magazine."  Five  acres  is  enough  for 
some  types  of  farming.  It  might  even  be  too  much  if  it 
were  all  in  greenhouses.  But  the  cases  where  so  small  an 
area  is  enough  for  a  good  business  are  cases  in  which  as 
much  capital  is  usually  invested  as  is  common  on  a  200- 
acre  farm.  Such  books  are  nearly  always  written  by  some 
one  who  has  a  comfortable  income  from  some  other  source 
than  the  farm.  Three  acres  is  a  very  delightful  place  for 
a  home,  when  one  has  a  sure  income,  but  three  acres  as  a 
business  proposition  is  different.  The  same  idea  has  even 
broken  out  in  poetry  about  a  ''  Little-farm-well-tilled." 
There  may  be  less  poetry,  but  there  is  a  better  living,  in 
a  large  farm  well  managed. 

Much  of  the  discussion  of  this  subject  is  confused  by  the 
almost  universal  acceptance  of  the  error  that  a  saving  of 
land  is  the  most  important  factor  in  raising  a  crop.  We 
have  already  seen  that  labor  is  the  major  cost  item  in  all 
farming  (page  146).  This  is  particularly  true  for  inten- 
sive crops,  where  the  labor  cost  is  often  five  to  ten  times 
the  cost  for  use  of  land.  The  farmer  is  interested  in  profit 
per  man,  not  profit  per  acre.  The  country  will  also  prosper 
in  proportion  to  the  profit  per  worker.  Some  parts  of 
China  may  be  ideal  in  profits  per  acre,  but  the  small  profit 
per  man  does  not  allow  a  high  development  of  civilization, 
either  on  the  farm  or  in  the  city.  The  person  who  rides 
by  a  farm  is  at  once  struck  by  waste  land,  but  little  is 
thought  of  the  idle  horse  or  of  labor  lost  by  poor  machinery 
or  small  fields,  yet  these  are  much  more  important  items. 

The  assumption  is  often  made  that  the  yield  per  acre  will 


SIZE  OF  FARMS 


243 


be  less  with  larger  farms.  This  may  be  true  for  very  large 
farms,  but  is  not  usually  true  for  the  good-sized  farms  com- 
pared with  the  small  ones. 


THE    RELATION    OF    SIZE    OF    FARM   TO    FARM   EFFICIENCY 

161.  Size  of  farm  and  profits.  —  Records  of  a  year's 
business  on  586  farms  operated  by  owners  were  secured  in 
Tompkins  County,  New  York.  This  is  a  region  of  general 
farming.  The  products  sold  are  milk,  butter,  hay,  pota- 
toes, eggs,  buckwheat,  wheat,  and  apples.  Hay,  oats, 
and  corn  are  raised  for  feed. 

In  this  region,  the  farmers  with  31  to  60  acres  of  land 
made  less  than  hired-man's  wages. ^  They  made  interest 
on  their  money  and  an  average  labor  income  of  $254. 
They  could  have  lent  their  money  and  hired  out  for  about 
$30  per  month,  or  better  yet,  could  have  been  tenants  on 
larger  farms.     (Table  36.) 

Table  36.  —  Size  of  Farm  Related  to  Profits,  586  Farms, 
Tompkins  County,  New  York 


Acres 

Number  of 
Farms 

Average  Size 
(Acres) 

Average  Til- 
lable Area 
(Acres) 

Labor  Income 

30  or  less     . 

31-60     .     . 

61-100  .  . 
101-150  .  . 
151-200  .  . 
Over  200       . 

30 

108 

214 

143 

57 

34 

21 

49 

83 

124 

177 

261 

18 

38 

60 

88 

117 

160 

$168 
254 
373 
436 
635 
946 

Average    . 

103 

$415 

Farmers  who  had  from  61  to  100  acres  made  about  the 
same  as  hired-men.     The  farmers  on  farms  of  over  200 

'  New  York,  Cornell  Bulletin  295,  pp.  414-423. 


244 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


acres,  averaging  261  acres,  made  interest  on  their  money 
and  about  $80  per  month  for  their  time.  Not  only  are 
the  averages  poor,  but  the  chances  of  an  individual  are 
also  poor  on  small  farms.  Of  352  farmers  on  farms  of  less 
than  101  acres,  only  9  made  labor  incomes  as  high  as  $1000, 
but  nearly  one-third  of  those  on  the  200-acre  farms  made 
over  $1000. 

The  farms  of  over  200  acres  are  not  bonanza  f-arms, 
they  are  none  too  large  for  family-farms.  They  provide 
work  for  two  to  three  persons.  On  the  average,  they  had 
about  one  hired-man  per  farm. 

Similar  records  were  secured  for  578  farms  in  the  north- 
ern part  of  Livingston  County,  New  York.  This  is  a 
region  with  rich  soils  and  very  prosperous  conditions. 
The  farmers  with  less  than  51  acres  made  less  than  hired- 
man's  wages.  Those  with  over  200  acres,  averaging  305 
acres,  made  an  average  labor  income  of  $1082,  or  $90  per 
month.     (Table  37  and  Figure  62.) 

Table  37.  —  Size  of  Farm  Related  to  Profits,  578  Farms, 
Livingston  County,  New  York 


Acres  Farmed 

Number  of 
Farms 

Average 
Acres  Farmed 

Tillable  Area 
(Acres) 

I;.\BOR  Income 

30  or  less 

17 

20 

17 

$54 

31-50     .     . 

35 

43 

37 

295 

51-100  .     . 

147 

79 

64 

437 

101-150   .     . 

178 

127 

104 

593 

151-200   .     . 

89 

175 

142 

934 

Over  200 .     . 

112 

305 

241 

1082 

Not  only  are  the  average  labor  incomes  much  larger  on 
the  larger  farms,  but  the  chances  of  making  a  good  profit 
are  much  better.  No  size  of  farm  is  large  enough  to  insure 
a  profit.     Some  persons  on  large  farms  have  failed  to  make 


SIZE  OF  FARMS  245 

good  labor  incomes,  but  the  proportion  of  such  failures  is 
smaller  and  the  proportion  of  successes  is  much  greater 
on  the  larger  farms.  All  of  the  very  highest  labor  incomes 
are  made  on  large  farms.  Of  the  52  farmers  who  had  50 
acres  or  less,  only  3  (or  6  per  cent)  made  labor  incomes  of 
over  SIOOO.  The  highest  was  $1159.  But  of  201  farmers 
with  over  150  acres,  89  (or  45  per  cent)  made  over  $1000. 
Of  the*  199  farmers  who  farmed  100  acres  or  less,  only  two 
made  labor  incomes  as  high  as  $1500.  The  highest  was 
$1747.  But  of  the  201  farmers  who  worked  over  150  acres, 
46  made  over  $1500.     The  highest  was  $7250. 

This  is  a  region  of  excellent  soils ;  several  rather  high- 
priced  crops,  as  cabbages,  potatoes,  and  beans,  are  raised. 
But  there  seems  to  be  little  chance  of  making  a  labor  income 
of  over  $1000  on  50  acres  of  land,  and  almost  no  chance  of 
making  a  labor  income  of  $1500  unless  one  has  over  100 
acres. 

There  are  plenty  of  good  men  among  the  199  who  are  on 
farms  of  less  than  100  acres.  The  reason  for  their  chances 
of  profit  being  less  than  on  the  larger  places  must  be  due 
to  physical  facts. 

The  tenants  on  the  larger  farms  are  doing  much  better 
than  those  on  small  farms.  Not  one  of  the  tenants  who 
farm  less  than  50  acres  is  doing  as  well  as  he  would  if  he 
were  a  hired-man.  (Table  38.)  The  landlords'  profits 
are  not  so  much  affected  by  size  of  farm.  This  is  to  be 
expected,  since  the  economy  of  the  large  farm  is  in  labor 
of  men,  horses,  and  machinery,  none  of  which  the  land- 
lord furnishes. 

Figure  62  shows  how  the  labor  income  increases  with 
the  size  of  farm.  Up  to  200  acres,  it  increases  very  rapidly 
as  the  size  increases.  The  increase  from  127  to  175  acres 
adds  58  per  cent  to  the  labor  income.     The  larger  acreage 


246 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


Table  38.  —  Area  Related  to  Tenant's  Labor  Income  and 
Landlord's  per  Cent  on  Investment,  Livingston  County, 
New  York 


Acres  Farmed 

Number  of 

Average 

Tenant's 

Landlord's 

Farmers 

Acres  Farmed 

Labor  Income 

PER  Cent 

30  or  less    . 

0 

31-50     .     . 

3 

42 

$102 

5.5% 

51-100   .     . 

30 

82 

519 

8.0 

101-150   .     . 

65 

130 

497 

6.8 

151-200   .     . 

44 

177 

663 

8.0 

Over  200       . 

62 

314 

875 

6.1 

can  be  farmed  without  any  great  increase  in  expense.  But 
when  the  farm  is  much  larger  than  200  acres,  it  is  necessary 
to  begin  to  duplicate  equipment,  so  that  while  the  labor 
income  increases,  it  does  not  increase  so  rapidly.      Ap- 


1000 


800 


£600 


400 


200 


\—             ^^^^' 

_^  —  ^^ 

> 

T~ 

t 

J. 

z 

^^     ^ 

/^ 

,     _J 

"    7 

-   f 

10        80       /zo      /60      200      2.40     2S0     320 


Fia.  62.  —  Relation  of  size  of  farm  to  labor  income. 


SIZE  OF  FARMS  247 

parently,  300  acres  is  near  the  point  at  which  additional 
area  would  not  result  in  a  much  greater  labor  income.  If 
there  should  be  a  change  in  the  size  or  character  of 
machinery  used,  a  still  larger  area  might  be  called  for. 

Under  present  conditions,  it  appears  that  farms  in 
Livingston  County  for  general  farming  should  not  be  less 
than  150  acres,  and  it  does  not  seem  that  much  is  gained 
by  having  over  300  acres.  About  200  to  400  acres  seems 
to  be  a  very  desirable  size. 

Similar  work  in  New  Hampshire  has  shown  that  the  farms 
making  the  larger  labor  incomes  are  larger  than  the  aver- 
age. This  applies  to  the  dairy  and  poultry  farms,  as  well 
as  to  general  farms.^ 

Wherever  studies  of  this  kind  have  been  madp,  the  same 
conclusions  have  been  strikingly  shown.  The  exact 
area  that  makes  a  large  farm  varies  with  the  region  and 
type  of  farming,  but  everywhere  the  farm  that  fails  to 
provide  employment  for  at  least  one  man,  besides  the  oper- 
ator, is  at  a  great  disadvantage. 

The  larger  farms  also  furnish  the  greater  opportunity 
for  losses.  It  is  not  possible  to  make  a  very  large  loss,  or 
a  very  large  profit,  on  a  small  business. 

The  Census  figures  for  the  United  States  do  not  give 
all  the  farm  expenses,  but  there  is  data  enough  to  show 
that  the  small  farms  are  rarely  profitable.  The  Census 
gives  the  value  of  products  not  fed  to  live-stock.  This 
is  more  than  the  receipts  per  farm,  because  seed  and  other 
products  used  on  the  farm  are  included.  Only  two  of  the 
items  of  expense  are  given,  labor  and  fertilizers. 

If,  from  the  value  of  products,  we  subtract  the  expenses 
given,  and  interest  on  the  capital,  we  obtain  a  figure  that  is 
larger  than  the  labor  income  of  the  farm-family.     From 

*  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  Circular  75,  pp.  11-16. 


248 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


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SIZE  OF  FARMS 


249 


this  should  be  subtracted  the  other  farm  expenses  and  the 
value  of  farm  work  done  by  other  members  of  the  family, 
to  see  what  the  farmer  received  for  his  time.     (Table  39.) 

The  average  farm  family  on  farms  of  50-99  acres,  there- 
fore, received  considerably  less  than  $311  for  its  year's 
work.  It  is  evident  that  these  farmers  failed  to  receive 
wages,  and  it  appears  as  if  those  on  farms  of  100  to  174 
acres  made  farm  wages,  and  that  those  on  larger  farms 
made  more  than  farm  wages.  The  high  figures  for  the 
farms  of  less  than  3  acres  are  due  to  the  inclusion  of  sheep 
ranches  on  free  ranges.  These  were  farmers  with  little  or 
no  land,  but  they  used  large  areas. 

The  chances  of  an  individual  are  certainly  poor  if  he  has 
a  very  small  farm.  The  Census  gives  the  percentage  of 
farms  of  each  size  with  given  values  of  products  not  fed  to 
live-stock.  Table  40  shows  that  of  the  farms  of  3  to  49 
acres,  only  about  one  in  200  produced  as  much  as  S2500 

r- 

Table  40. — Percentage  of  Farms  of  Various  Sizes  in  the 
United  States  in  1899  Producing  $  1000  Worth  and 
$2500  Worth  of  Products  not  Fed  to  Live-stock  ^ 


Per  Cent  with  $1000 

Per  Cent  with  $2500 

Acres  Farmed 

TO  $2499  Worth  of 

Worth  of  Products 

Products  not  Fed 

not  Fed 

Under  3  acres    .     . 

7.0% 

5.2% 

3-9        .     . 

1.5 

0.6 

10-19 

1.6 

0.4 

20-49 

2.0 

0.3 

50-99 

7.4 

0.6 

100-174 

21.8 

1.4 

175-259 

37.3 

5.2 

260-499 

39.6 

12.7 

500-999 

33.3 

24.3 

Over  1000 

25.6 

39.5 

'  Twelfth  Census,  Vol.  V,  p.  xlvii. 


250 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


worth  of  products  not  fed.  Only  about  2  farms  out 
of  a  hundred  reached  the  $1000  figure.  But  for  farms  of 
175  to  259  acres,  37  in  100  reached  $1000,  and  5  of  them 
exceeded  $2500.  This  does  not  show  just  what  theirlabor 
incomes  were,  because  expenses  and  interest  are  not  de- 
ducted, but  it  shows  that  the  men  on  the  larger  farms  at 
least  have  a  chance  to  make  money,  while  the  persons  on 
the  very  small  farms  rarely  have  a  chance  to  make  much, 
because  the  total  value  of  products  is  too*  small. 

162.  Relation  of  size  of  farm  to  eflSciency  in  use  of 
labor.  —  On  the  586  farms  in  Tompkins  County,  New 
York,  the  receipts  per  acre  were  more  on  small  farms  than 
on  the  larger  ones,  but  the  single  item  of  labor  cost  was  so 
great  that  it  more  than  offset  the  difference  in  receipts. 
Other  expenses  were  also  more  per  acre  on  the  small  farms. 

If  the  farmer's  labor  is  worth  $326,  which  is  the  aver- 


Table  41.  —  Size  op  Farm  Related  to  Receipts,  Expenses, 
AND  Labor.  Farms  Operated  by  Owners,  Tompkins 
County,  New  York 


Acres 

Average 

Size 
(Acres) 

Receipts 
per  Acre 

Labor 

Cost  per 

Acre' 

Receipts 
Minus 
Labor 

PER  Acre 

Other  Ex- 
penses AND 
Interest 
PER  Acre 

Net  Profit 
PER  Acre  2 

30  or  less 
31-60 
61-100 
101-150 
151-200 
Over  200 

21 

49 

83 

124 

177 

261 

$26.14 
14.24 
12.49 
11.56 
10.89 
10.93 

$19.90 

8.10 
5.60 
4.54 
3.92 
3.33 

$6.24 
6.14 
6.89 
7.02 
6.97 
7.60 

$13.76 
7.61 
6.32 
6.13 
5.22 
5.22 

loss  $7.52 
loss    1.47 
gain      .57 
gain      .89 
gain    1.75 
gain    2.38 

1  Total  amount  paid  for  labor,  value  of  board  of  laborers,  value  of 
unpaid  labor  by  members  of  the  family,  and  the  farmer's  labor  estimated 
at  $326  for  the  year. 

^  Profit  after  deducting  expenses,  interest  on  capital  at  5  per  cent,  and 
all  labor  as  defined  above. 


SIZE  OF  FARMS 


251 


2S 


IS 


10 


5  S 


^    '0  40  "80  T20  IbO         200  240         280       32.0 

Fig.  63.  —  Relation  of  size  of  farm  to  acres  farmed  with  $100  worth  of 

labor. 

age  value  placed  on  it  by  the  farmers,  then  there  is  a  net 
loss  of  $1.47  per  acre  on  farms  of  31-60  acres,  and  a  gain 
on  the  larger  farms.     (Table  41.) 

In  Livingston  County,  New  York,  the  area  farmed  with 

Table  42.  —  Size  of  Farm  Related  to  Efficiency  of  Labor. 
586  Farms  Operated  by  Owners 


^^^' 

^^ — 

^^ 

y 

z 

Acres 

Area  Farmed  per  $100 
Worth  op  Labor' 

30  or  less 

31-60     

5  acres 
12  acres 

61-100     

18  acres 

101-150     

22  acres 

151-200     

26  acres 

Over  200  ...-.-- 

30  acres 

'  Total  labor  cost  includes  wages  paid,  board  of  laborers,  value  of 
unpaid  labor  by  members  of  the  family,  and  $326  for  the  labor  of  the 
farmer. 


252  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

$100  worth  of  human  labor  is  five  times  as  great  on  the 
largest  farms  as  on  the  smallest.  On  the  farms  of  31  to 
50  acres,  the  labor  cost  is  over  twice  as  much  per  acre  as 
on  the  farms  of  151  to  200  acres.  In  spite  of  the  fact  that 
the  labor  cost  is  so  high  on  the  small  farms,  the  crop  yields 
are  no  better.  The  product  of  a  man's  work  on  the  151- 
to  200-acre  farms  is  over  twice  as  much  as  the  product  of 
a  man's  work  on  the  31-  to  50-acre  farms.  The  same  point 
is  shown  by  work  in  other  counties.     (Tables  42,  43.) 

Table  43.  —  Area  Related  to  Efficiency  of  Labor.     578 
Farms,  Livingston  County,  New  York 


Acres  Farmed 

Acres  Farmed  with  $100 
Worth  of  Labor  ' 

30  or  less 

31-50     

51-100  . 

101-150  

151-200  

Over  200 

4.4 
8.8 
13.0 
16.6 
18.1 
21.8 

'  Total  labor  cost  includes  wages  paid,  board  of  laborers,  value  of 
unpaid  labor  by  members  of  the  family,  and  $420  for  the  labor  of  the 
farmer. 

On  a  small  farm  it  requires  relatively  much  more  time 
to  do  the  chores.  Six  horses  and  12  cows  do  not  take 
nearly  twice  as  much  time  as  is  required  for  3  horses  and 
6  cows. 

There  are  many  farm  operations  that  require  two  men, 
so  that  no  matter  how  small  the  farm  may  be,  one  man 
cannot  do  all  the  work  to  good  advantage.  Even  with 
the  smallest  farms,  some  help  is  hired.     (Table  44.) 

The  farms  of  151  to  200  acres  are  the  smallest  group 
that  employ  two  men  by  the  year.      In  this  group  there 


SIZE  OF  FARMS 


263 


is  an  average  of  2.3  men  per  farm;  that  is,  1.3  men  besides 
the  operator.     (Table  44.) 

One  hired-man  by  the  year  is  the  smallest  number  that 
can  be  used  to  run  a  farm  effectively.  In  this  County, 
it  appears  that,  on  the  average,  a  farm  must  be  over  150 
acres  if  it  is  to  justify  one  in  keeping  a  man  bj^  the  year. 

The  farms  averaging  79  acres  employ  an  average  of  a 
man  for  half  of  a  year.  This  is  53  acres  per  man.  But  175 
acres  is  farmed  with  a  little  less  than  one  additional  man. 
The  additional  man  makes  it  possible  to  farm  96  more 
acres,  almost  twice  as  much  per  man.  At  the  same  time, 
the  crop  yields  are  just  as  good. 

Table  44.  —  Relation  of  Size  of  Farm  to  Efficienct  of 
Labor.     Livingston  County,  New  York 


AcREa 
Farmed 

Average 
Acres 

Value  of 
LTnpaid 
Labor 
Except 

Owner's 

Cash   Paid 
FOR  Labor 

Approxi- 
mate 
Number 
OF  Men  ' 

Addi- 
tional 
Men 

Additional 

Acres 

Farmed 

30  or  less 
31-50     . 
51-100  . 

101-150  . 

151-200  . 

Over  200 

20 

43 

79 

127 

175 

305 

$7 
31 
41 
51 
93 
129 

$28 
29 
113 
218 
341 
633 

1.1 

1.2 
1.5 
1.8 
2.3 
3.3 

0.1 
0.3 
0.3 
0.5 
1.0 

23 
36 

48 

48 

130 

On  the  average,  the  additional  area  is  farmed  at  the  rate  of  130  acres 
per  man.  It  appears  that  in  Livingston  County,  after  one  has  labor  to 
run  a  given  farm,  he  can  farm  130  acres  more  by  hiring  one  more  man. 

>  The  approximate  number  of  men  is  found  by  adding  the  cash  cost 
of  labor  to  the  value  of  unpaid  labor,  and  dividing  by  the  approximate 
cash  cost  of  one  man,  $325,  th^t?  adding  the  operator  to  the  number 
secured. 


For  the  United  States,  figures  are  not  given  as  to  the 
amount  of  farm  work  done  by  members  of  the  farm  family 


254 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


other  than  the  operator.  Allowing  for  this,  it  would  ap- 
pear that  a  man  farms  over  twice  the  area  on  the  farms 
of  175-259  acres  as  on  the  50  to  99-acre  farms.  The 
Census  figures  do  not  give  the  crop  yields  that  result,  but 
from  the  work  in  New  York,  it  would  appear  that  the  crop 
yields  are  likely  to  be  as  good  on  the  larger  farms. 

Table  45  shows  how  the  farmers  of  America  have  in- 
creased the  area  of  crops  raised  per  male  worker.  The 
area  per  horse  has  not  changed  much.  The  farmers  are 
driving  more  horses  per  man  and  so  saving  man-time. 
They  are  driving  a  third  more  horses  per  man,  and  raising 
a  third  more  acres  of  crops  per  worker,  than  the  farmers 
did  in  1880.  This  table  would  seem  to  indicate  that  im- 
proved machinery  has  not  saved  horse-time,  feut  has  saved 
man-time,  because  one  man  drives  more  horses. 

Table  45.  —  Increasing  Efficiency  of  Farmers  in  the 
United  States  ^ 


1880 

1890 

1900 

1910 

Average  number  of  acres  of  crops  per 
male  worker  16  years  old  or  older 

Average  number  of  acres  of  crops  for 
each  horse,  mule,  or  ass  one  year  old 
or  older 

Average  number  of  horses,  etc.  per 
worker 

23.3 

13.5 
1.7 

27.5 

12.4 
2.2 

31.0 

13.5 
2.3 

12.7 

'  Twelfth  Census,  Vol.  V,  p.  xxxi.  The  crops  included  are  buck- 
wheat, barley,  corn,  rice,  oats,  rye,  wheat,  hay,  tobacco,  cotton,  hops, 
and  sugar  cane.  These  are  the  only  crops  reported  for  every  year. 
Other  crops  reported  in  1900  averaged  1.2  additional  acres  per  male 
worker,  and  0.5  per  horse. 

The  table  does  not  include  all  the  minor  crops,  because 
some  of  them  were  not  reported  before  1900.  The  area  of 
all  crops  in  1900  averaged  33  acres  per  male  worker. 


SIZE  OF  FARMS 


255 


Horses  and  mules  are  not  much  used  before  they  are 
three  years  old.  If  only  horses  and  mules  three  years 
old  are  included,  and  if  all  the  minor  crops  are  counted, 
the  crop  area  per  mule  or  horse  in  1900  would  be  17.1 
acres.^  The  number  of  work  animals  per  male  worker  was 
1.9. 

163.  Relation  of  the  size  of  farm  to  eflBciency  in  use 
of  horses.  —  Economy  in  the  use  of  horse  labor  is  becoming 
increasingly  important.  In  most  parts  of  the  country, 
it  costs  as  much,  or  more,  to  keep  a  team  of  horses  as  it 
does  to  keep  a  man.  The  best  way  to  economize 
in  the  use  of  horses  is  to  keep  them  employed.  It  is 
difficult  to  keep  horses  busy  if  the  farm  is  too  small. 

Table  46  lor  Tompkins  County,  New  York,  shows  how 
the  number  of  horses  increases  with  the  size  of  farm.     Colts 


1M       zho       iZO 

Fig.  64.  —  Relation  of  size  of  farm  to  acres  farmed  by  a  horse. 

1  The  Census  of  1900  reported  18,276,551  horses  and  mules  2  years 
old  or  older,  and  reported  1,727,672  as  1  and  under  2  years  old.  Horses 
and  mules  increased  at  the  rate  of  395,807  per  year  from  1890  to  1900. 
We  may,  therefore,  assume  that  there  were  about  1,331,865  two  and  under 
3  years  old.     This  would  give  about  16,945,000  three  years  old  or  older. 


256 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


are  not  included  with  horses.  The  figures  are  for  horses 
old  enough  to  work.  The  farms  of  less  than  30  acres 
average  1.4  horses  per  farm.  Three  or  four  horses  are  the 
smallest  number  that  can  be  used  efficiently  with  modern 
machinery.  The  farms  of  151  to  200  acres  are  the  smallest 
ones  that  have  an  average  of  four  horses  per  farm. 


Table  46.  —  Size  of  Farm  Related  to  Horses. 
Operated  by  Owners 


586  Farms 


Acres 

Average  Size 
(Acres) 

Average  Number 
OP  Horses 

Acres  per  Horse 

30  or  less     .     . 

31-60      .     .     . 

61-100  .  .  . 
101-150  .  .  . 
151-200  .  .  „ 
Over  200  ..     . 

21 

49 

83 

124 

177 

261 

1.4 
2.3 
2.8 
3.4 
4.3 
5.3 

15 
21 
30 
37 
41 
49 

Average 

103 

3.1 

33 

The  figures  of  acres  per  horse  are  still  more  striking. 
The  small  farms  have  not  enough  horses  to  make  efficient 
teams,  and  yet  they  are  over-supplied  with  horses  compared 
with  their  area.  On  these  farms  there  are  only  15  acres 
per  horse.  On  the  largest  farms  one  horse  farms  three 
times  this  area,  with  no  resulting  decrease  in  crop  yields. 
When  we  consider  the  cost  of  keeping  a  horse,  we  see  what 
a  great  a-d vantage  the  larger  farms  have. 

In  Livingston  County,  on  the  31-  to  50-acre  farms,  a 
horse  farms  18  acres,  but  on  the  151-  to  200-acre  farms,  a 
horse  farms  27  acres.  Yet  the  crop  yields  are  just  as  good 
on  the  larger  farms.  The  cost  of  horse  labor  to  produce  a 
given  amount  of  crop  on  the  larger  farms  is  little  over  half 
that  for  the  smaller  farms. 


SIZE  OF  FARMS  257 

On  a  small  farm,  the  horses  cannot  be  kept  in  constant 
use,  because  there  is  not  work  enough. 

On  a  one-man  farm,  the  horses  are  kept  out  of  the  fields 
whenever  the  farmer  docs  chores,  hand  work,  or  goes  to 
town.  On  a  two-man  farm,  one  man  may  be  using  all  the 
horses  while  the  other  man  does  other  work.  If  there  are 
four  or  five  horses  on  the  place,  the  man  who  is  working 
the  teams  may  be  driving  three  or  four  horses.  At  the 
same  time,  the  other  man  may  make  a  trip  to  town  with 
one  horse.  All  the  horses  are  then  kept  at  work.  A  farm 
with  five  horses  has  a  great  advantage  in  being  able  to  ad- 
just the  size  of  team  to  machinery  and  work.  It  allows  a 
five-horse  team,  a  four-horse  team,  or  two  two-horse 
teams,  with  a  single  horse  for  other  work,  and  allows  a 
three-  and  a  two-horse  team.  By  these  means,  the  labor  of 
men  and  machinery  is  economized,  and  work  can  be  more 
promptly  done.  The  chores  are  frequently  done  by  the 
man  not  working  the  team,  again  keeping  the  horses  in 
the  field.  It  is  almost  impossible  to  keep  the  horses  busy 
on  a  one-man  farm. 

If  a  farmer  has  only  two  horses,  he  cannot  take  advan- 
tage of  the  great  economy  that  comes  from  driving  three- 
and  four-horse  teams.  Even  if  he  could  borrow  the  horses 
and  machinery,  he  could  not  use  them  to  advantage  in 
his  small  fields. 

The  Census  figures  for  the  United  States  point  to  the 
same  conclusion. 

164.  Relation  of  size  of  farm  to  efficiency  in  the  use 
of  machinery.  —  Most  of  the  common  farm  machinery 
can  be  used  to  do  the  work  on  a  200-  or  300-acre  farm,  ay 
well  as  on  a  small  farm.  If  the  small  farm  buys  the  ma- 
chinery, it  is  at  too  great  a  cost  per  acre.  If  it  goes  without 
macninery,  the  loss  of  time  and  yields  is  even  more  serious. 
s 


258 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


Table  47  shows  the  relation  of  size  of  farm  to  investment 
in  machinery  and  tools.  The  farms  of  61-100  acres  had 
an  average  of  $341  worth  of  machinery.  These  valua- 
tions are  probably  not  over  half  of  what  new  machinery 
would  cost.  Any  one  who  has  ever  made  a  list  of  the  nec- 
essary farm  machinery  will  see  how  inadequately  these 
small  farms  are  equipped.  Yet  this  machinery  costs 
much  more  per  acre  than  on  the  larger  farms.  The  an- 
nual cost  for  housing,  repairs,  and  depreciation,  interest, 
oil,  insurance,  has  been  found  by  cost  accounts  to  be 
about  20  per  cent  of  the  value  of  the  machinery. 
The  annual  cost  per  acre  for  use  of  machinery  would  be 
about  $1.75  on  the  smallest  farms  and  $1  on  the  largest 
farms. 


Table  47.  —  Size  of  Farm  Related  to  Efficiency  of  Ma- 
chinery. 586  Farms  Operated  by  Owners,  Tompkins 
County,  New  York 


Acres 

Average  Size 
(Acres) 

Value  of 
Machinery 
AND  Tools 

Investment  in 

Machinery 

per  Acre 

30  or  less     .     . 

31-60      .     .     . 

61-100  .  .  . 
101-150  .  .  . 
151-200  .  .  . 
Over  200 ..     . 

21 

49 

83 

124 

177 

261 

$125 
243 
341 
495 
592 
914 

$5.95 
4.96 
4.11 
3.99 
3.34 
3.50 

Average 

103 

407 

3.95 

One  mower,  one  hay  rake,  one  tedder,  one  hay  loader,  one 
corn  harvester,  one  grain  harvester,  one  grain  drill,  one 
manure  spreader,  one  potato  digger,  one  potato  planter, 
can  do  their  work  on  a  250-acre  farm  as  readily  as  on  a 
small  farm.     Few  of  the  small  farms  have  half  of  these 


SIZE  OF  FARMS 


259 


tools.  If  a  small  farm  does  have  nearly  all  the  list,  it 
cannot  use  them  enough  to  pay  for  the  investment.  The 
more  efficient  and  numerous  machines  become,  the  larger 
our  farms  should  be.  It  is  interesting  to  notice  how  many 
of  the  tools  are  of  very  recent  development.  Almost  half 
of  the  value  of  farm  machinery  on  a  well-equipped  farm 
is  invested  in  machinery  that  has  been  perfected  in  the 
last  few  years. 

Apparently,  the  efficiency  with  which  the  labor  of  men, 
teams,  and  tools  can  be  used  is  the  important  factor  in 
making  the  larger  farms  pay  better.  The  results  on  tenant 
farms  also  agree  with  these  conclusions.  The  tenant  who 
furnishes  labor  finds  the  larger  farms  more  profitable. 
The  profits  of  the  landlord  who  furnishes  no  labor  seem  to 
be  little  affected  by  the  size  of  the  farm. 

Table  48  gives  the  same  results  for  another  county. 
The  small  farms  are  under-equipped,  but  at  double  the 
cost  per  acre  of  the  large  farms. 

Table  48.  —  Size   of   Farm   Related  to  Efficiency   of  Ma- 
chinery.   578  Farms,  Livingston  County,  New  York 


Acres  Farmed 

Value  of  Machinery 

Investment  in 
Machinery  per  Acre 

30  or  less 

31-50 

51-100 

101-150 

151-200 

Over  200 

$141 
226 

503 
523 

707 
955 

$7.05 
5.26 
6.37 
4.12 
4.04 
3.13 

Exactly  the  same  point  is  she  wn  by  the  Census  for  the 
United  States  in  1900.  The  farms  of  less  than  100  acres 
had  a  very  poor  equipment,  but  the  investment  per  acre 
was  much  more  than  on  the  large  farms.     (Table  49.) 


260 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


Table  49.  —  Area   Related   to   Efficiency   in    the    Use    of 
Machinery,  United  States,  1900  ^ 


Investment  in 

Acres  Farmed 

Value  of  Machinery 

Machinery  per  Acre 
OF  Improved  Land 

Under  3  acres    .     . 

$53 

$31.18 

3-9        .     . 

42 

7.50 

10-19 

41 

3.15 

20-49 

54 

2.08 

50-99 

106 

2.16 

100-174 

155 

1.87 

175-259 

211 

1.64 

260-499 

263 

1.38 

500-999 

377 

1.31 

1000  and  over 

1222 

2.35 

»  Twelfth  Census,  Vol.  V,  p.  186. 

Cooperative  ownership  of  machinery  is  often  desirable 
and  helps,  to  some  extent,  to  solve  the  problem  for  the 
small  farm,  but  there  is  much  time  lost  in  taking  machines 
from  one  farm  to  another,  and  it  is  much  more  difficult 
to  plan  the  work  so  as  to  have  the  operations  done  at  the 
proper  time,  when  more  than  one  farmer  is  concerned. 

165.  Relation  of  area  to  eflSciency  in  the  use  of  capi- 
tal. —  The  small  farm  has  relatively  much  more  of  its 
capital  invested  in  unproductive  ways.  No  matter  how 
small  the  farm  may  be,  the  owner  desires  a  respectable 
house.  Table  50  shows  that  the  smallest  farms  have  43 
per  cent  of  their  capital  in  houses ;  the  largest  farms  have 
somewhat  better  houses,  but  have  only  9  per  cent  of  their 
capital  thus  invested. 

The  barns  on  the  small  farms  also  take  a  much  larger 
•proportion  of  the  capital.  The  smallest  farms  have  19  per 
cent  of  their  capital  thus  invested,  the  largest  farms  have 
only  11  per  cent  thus  tied  up.     An  equally  good  barn  for 


SIZE  OF  FARMS 


261 


ten  head  of  stock  costs  much  more  than  half  as  much  as  a 
barn  to  house  twenty  head  of  stock.  The  smallest  farms 
have  an  investment  in  barns  of  $164  per  animal  unit.^ 
The  largest  farms  have  only  $50  per  animal  unit.  Yet 
observations  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  the  stock  on  the 
larger  places  is  better  housed.  If  interest,  repairs,  de- 
preciation, and  insurance  on  a  building  amount  to  10  per 
cent  of  the  value,  then  the  housing  cost  per  animal  unit 
would  vary  from  $16  per  year  on  the  smallest  farms  to 
$5  per  year  on  the  largest. 

Table  50.  —  Area  Related  to  Investment  in  Buildings, 
578  Farms,  Livingston  County,  New  York 

Value  op 

Acres  Farmed        ^u^^L"*'    /^!''„.i"T^';.       Other       Capital  in     Buildings 

PER  Animal 
Unit 


30  or  less 

31-50 

51-100 

101-150 

151-200 

Over  200 


Value  op 
Houses 

Per  Cent 

OF  Total 

Capital  in 

Houses 

Value  of 

Other 
Buildings 

Per  Cent 

OF  Total 

Capital  in 

Other 
Buildings 

$1494 

43% 

$655 

19% 

1000 

23 

681 

15 

1236 

18 

1091 

16 

1477 

14 

1408 

13 

1810 

13 

1900 

13 

2113 

9 

2552 

11 

95 
87 
74 
73 
50 


Again  the  figures  for  the  United  States  show  the  same 
conclusion.  The  larger  farms  -have  better  buildings,  but 
at  a  less  proportionate  cost.  The  farms  of  less  than  20 
acres  have  over  one-third  of  their  capital  invested  in 
buildings  and  machinery.  Those  of  over  175  acres  have 
less  than  one-fifth  of  the  money  thus  employed.  Money 
thus  invested  is  not  only  unproductive,  but  is  a  source  of 
constant  cost  for  repairs.  If  a  farmer  had  all  his  money 
invested  in  buildings  and  machinery  and  mules,  his  income 

'  All  animals  reduced  to  their  equivalent  in  cows  or  horses,  see  page 
209  for  definition. 


262 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


would,  of  course,  be  zero.     In  fact,  he  would  not  be  a 
farmer  at  all. 

166.  Relation  of  size  of  farm  to  size  of  fields.  —  The 
small  farm  of  necessity  has  small  fields,  if  a  rotation  is 
followed.  Cost  accounting  has  shown  a  considerable  differ- 
ence in  the  cost  of  producing  crops  on  small  and  fairly 
large  fields.  Every  operation  costs  more.  It  also  costs 
very  much  more  to  fence  small  fields  than  large  ones. 
(See  page  368.) 

Table  51.  —  Relation  of  Size  of  Farm  to  Efficiency  in  the 
Use  op  Capital,  United  States,  1900  ^ 


Acres  Farmed 

Value  of  Buildings 

Per  Cent  op  Total 
Real  Estate  Value 

Under  3 

$653 

54% 

3-9         

428 

45 

10-19       

316 

35 

20-49       

303 

29 

50-99       

532 

26 

100-174     

724 

22 

175-259     

1007 

19 

260-499     

1127 

17 

500-999     . 

1403 

15 

1000  and  over    .... 

2261 

10 

1  Twelfth  census,  Vol.  V,  pp.  li  and  187. 

167.  Relation  of  size  of  farms  to  economy  in  buying 
and  selling.  —  Usually  better  terms  can  be  obtained  when 
a  farmer  is  able  to  buy  and  sell  in  large  quantities.  There 
is  a  great  saving  when  drain  tile,  lime,  fertilizers,  feed, 
and  stock  can  be  bought  in  carload  lots,  if  any  of  these 
are  wanted.  There  is  also  a  gain  when  stock,  hay,  pota- 
toes, cabbages,  and  apples  can  be  shipped  in  carloads. 
Sometimes  the  same  results  can  be  secured  by  cooperative 
buying  and  selling. 


SIZE  OF  FARMS  263 

168.  Are  the  results  due  to  the  man?  —  Some  persons 
believe  that  there  are  40-acre  farmers,  80-acre  farmers, 
and  300-acre  farmers,  and  that  all  these  men  have  so 
shifted  around  that  the  larger  farms  are  always  in  the 
hands  of  the  better  men.  The  better  results  are,  there- 
fore, all  attributed  to  the  man. 

A  study  of  the  history  of  a  large  number  of  individual 
farms  and  farmers  shows  that  the  man  is  only  one  of  the 
many  factors  that  have  to  do  with  success.  The  soil  and 
the  area  of  crops  grown  are  more  frequent  causes  of  success 
and  failure. 

To  make  even  a  moderate  success  on  a  small  farm  is 
very  much  more  difficult  than  it  is  to  make  a  good  success 
on  a  fair-sized  farm.  When  the  necessary  equipment  and 
horses  for  an  80-acrc  farm  will  be  almost  sufficient  for 
160  acres,  and  when  a  family  can  do  all  the  work  on  the 
larger  farm,  it  will  be  seen  at  once  that  the  larger  farm 
will  double  the  income  without  much  more  expense.  It 
therefore  becomes  a  task  for  a  genius  on  the  80-acre  farm 
to  compete  with  a  very  ordinary  mortal  on  the  larger 
area. 

It  takes  much  less  intelligence  to  make  a  profit  out  of 
a  mowing  machine  that  cuts  50  acres  than  it  does  out  of  one 
that  cuts  10  acres  a  year.  It  takes  less  ability  to  make 
a  profit  out  of  four  horses  that  raise  100  acres  of  crops 
than  it  does  to  make  a  profit  out  of  half  as  many  horses 
that  farm  only  40  acres.  It  takes  much  less  intelligence 
to  direct  a  hired  man  so  as  to  make  a  profit  from  employing 
him,  if  he  drives  3  or  4  horses,  than  it  does  if  he  drives  two 
horses. 

The  confusion  has  arisen  from  the  almost  universal 
tendency  to  deal  with  extremes,  and  to  think  of  the  small 
farm  as  a  one-man  farm  and  the  large  farm  as  a  farm  where 


264  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

the  operator  directs  many  men.  It  certainly  takes  ability 
to  handle  a  large  number  of  men  on  a  large  farm,  but  the 
problem  between  a  100-  and  a  200-acre  farm  is  not  in  num- 
ber of  men  employed,  but  in  having  only  half  work  for 
them  on  the  smaller  place. 

The  large  farms  operated  by  tenants  show  the  same 
degree  of  efficiency  as  those  operated  by  owners.^  Fre- 
quently, after  the  tenant  saves  enough  money,  he  becomes 
an  owner  of  a  small  place.  The  efficiency  in  the  use  of  his 
•horses  and  machinery  is  then  limited. 

A  study  of  the  shifts  of  individuals  is  exceedingly  inter- 
esting and  instructive.  A  farmer  frequently  rents  or  buys 
more  land  and  farms  it  without  any  more  help,  horses,  or 
machinery. 

The  logic  of  the  question  ought  to  be  sufficient  without 
any  of  the  preceding  discussion.  If  small  farms  are  more 
efficient  than  larger  farms,  then  all  the  more  able  men 
would  choose  small  farms,  and  if  they  had  money  left 
over,  invest  it  in  other  ways. 

169.  Best  size  of  farm.  —  Figure  62  shows  that  300 
acres  is  approaching  the  limit  of  the  most  profitable  size 
of  farm,  for  the  type  of  farming.  All  the  tables  show 
that  with  a  small  farm,  a  little  increased  area  results 
in  enormously  increased  efficiency,  but  additional  area  for 
a  larger  farm  does  not  result  in  the  same  saving.  Ulti- 
mately, a  size  is  reached  that  provides  full  employment  for 
men,  horses,  and  machinery.  When  this  point  is  reached 
additional  land  requires  more  equipment.  The  point  at 
which  this  change  occurs  varies  with  climate,  soil,  and 
other  conditions,  and  for  different  kinds  of  equipment. 
Wagons  soon  have  to  be  duplicated;  grain  binders  are 
adapted  to  larger  acreages. 

»  New  York,  Cornell  Bulletin  295,  p.  542. 


SIZE  OF  FARMS  265 

Usually  it  is  not  possible  to  get  much  more  than  300  acres 
that  is  well  located  with  respect  to  the  farm  buildings. 
When  the  land  is  too  far  from  the  buildings,  too  much  time 
is  lost  in  going  to  work,  and  in  hauling  manure  and  crops. 
Even  if  one  can  buy  land  that  is  properly  located,  640  acres 
is  ordinarily  the  limit  that  can  be  run  from  one  center.  If 
the  farm  is  laid  out  like  Figure  80,  this  area  would  be  as 
near  the  buildings  as  160  acres  usually  is,  because  the 
buildings  are  so  frequently  at  the  corner  of  the  farm. 
With  some  exploitive  types  of  farming,  such  as  occur  in 
parts  of  the  West,  the  products  are  not  hauled  to  the 
farmstead,  and  manure  is  not  hauled  back  to  the  fields, 
hence  larger  farms  may  pay.  But  with  mixed  farming 
that  develoj)s  as  the  country  grows  older,  300  to  600  acres 
is  all  that  it  is  generally  profitable  to  run  from  one  center. 
Men  who  have  more  land  usually  run  it  as  separate  farms. 

The  Taft  Ranch  in  Texas  has  tried  different  sizes  of 
units,  from  50  acres  for  a  farm  rented  to  a  Mexican,  to  2000 
acres  of  crops  for  a  farm  run  by  a  manager  with  hired  labor, 
and  with  the  buildings  all  at  one  center.  The  plans  for 
the  future  are  to  lay  out  the  largest  units  in  tracts  of  1200 
acres  of  tillable  land,  with  600  acres  on  each  side  of  the 
road.  Larger  areas  make  the  fields  too  far  from  the 
buildings.  The  crops  are  cotton  and  enough  forage  to 
feed  the  mules,  so  that  there  is  a  minimum  of  hauling. 
The  land  is  level  and  all  other  conditions  ideal  for  large 
farms. 

In  regions  where  the  land  is  nearly  all  tillable,  and 
the  rainfall  fairly  good,  a  farm  should  contain  at  least  160 
acres.  This  provides  for  a  fairly  efficient  use  of  men, 
horses,  and  machinery,  when  the  chief  crops  raised  are 
grain  and  hay.  But  it  takes  less  ability  to  handle  a  320- 
acre  farm  efficiently.     The  sizes  that  are  proving  most 


266  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

efficient  for  various  types  of  farming  will  be  discussed  in 
the  next  chapter.  In  order  to  use  machinery  and  horses 
effectively  a  farm  ought  to  be  large  enough  to  use  five 
horses.  It  must  be  large  enough  to  use  at  least  one  man, 
or  grown  boy,  besides  the  operator,  if  it  is  to  be  run  econom- 
ically. 

170.  Profits  on  very  large  farms.  —  We  have  seen  that 
the  moderately  large  farm  of  200  to  400  acres  has  a  very 
great  advantage  over  the  small  farm.  These  farms  are 
essentially  alike  in  character.  But  the  "  bonanza  "  farm 
is  an  entirely  different  proposition.  All  of  the  usual  dis- 
cussions of  large  farms  apply  to  this  class. 

There  are  several  reasons  why  it  is  very  difficult  to 
handle  farms  of  several  thousand  acres  profitably.  The 
great  variety  of  work  that  must  be  done  makes  it  difficult 
to  handle  men  in  gangs  and  use  them  like  machines.  The 
large  area  over  which  operations  must  be  carried  on  makes 
it  impossible  to  use  factory  methods.  The  frequent  change 
of  work  on  a  moment's  notice,  because  of  weather  or  other 
conditions,  makes  it  difficult  to  prevent  lost  time  in  shift- 
ing from  one  job  to  another.  It  is  difficult  to  keep  a  large 
gang  employed  on  stormy  days.  Part  of  the  difficulty 
of  keeping  men  busy  is  obviated  by  giving  each  man  some 
land  to  work  for  himself,  with  the  agreement  that  he  is 
to  work  by  the  day  whenever  he  is  needed.  When  not 
needed,  he  can  work  for  himself. 

The  man  who  works  with  his  men  and  who  treats  his 
men  as  equals  has  a  great  advantage  over  one  who  merely 
superintends  work.  The  great  majority  of  farm  operations 
require  judgment  and  interest  on  the  part  of  the  worker. 

It  is  not  often  possible  to  run  more  than  600  acres,  or  in 
some  cases  1000  acres,  economically  from  one  center,  on  ac- 
count of  the  lost  time  in  going  to  and  from  fields,  and  in 


SIZE  OF  FAEMS 


267 


hauling  crops  and  manure.  Occasionally,  there  is  a  suc- 
cessful enterprise  made  up  of  a  number  of  such  units  all 
under  one  direction,  but  usually  it  then  becomes  desirable 
to  give  the  man  on  the  ground  an  interest  in  the  business. 
The  customary  way  of  doing  this  is  to  rent  the  farm.  In 
other  words,  to  break  it  up  into  small  farms.  This  is 
usually  more  satisfactory,  even  if  the  farmer  is  a  negro. 
The  great  majority  of  southern  owners  find  it  better  to 
rent  the  land  in  areas  adapted  to  a  negro  family,  rather 
than  run  large  farms  with  hired  labor. 

There  are  some  exceptions.  Large  farms  have  been 
most  successful  in  growing  sugar  cane.  Large  nurseries 
have  an  advantage  over  small  ones,  particularly  in  selling 
the  product.  The  same  point  applies  to  seed  farms  and 
plant-breeding  farms.  Some  vegetable  and  fruit  farms  are 
able  to  use  men  in  gangs  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year,  and 
so  handle  large  areas. 

171,  Relation  of  size  of  farm  to  crop  yields.  —  The 
city  man  and  the  political  economist  at  once  ask  what 
effect  the  larger  farms  have  on  the  food  production  of  the 

Table  52.  —  Size  of  Farm  Related  to  Crop  Yields.     586 
Farms  Operated  by  Owners,  Tompkins  County,  New  York 


Acres 

Average 

Size 
(Acres) 

Yields  per  Acre 

Oats 

Potatoes 

Hay 

30  or  less    .     .     . 

31-60     .... 

61-100  .... 
101-1.50  .... 
151-200  .... 
Over  200      .     .     . 

21 

49 

83 

124 

177 

261 

Bushels 

35 
32 
32 
34 
32 
35 

Bushels 
117 
111 

119 
114 
127 
113 

Tons 
1.38 

1.36 
1.33 
1.35 
1.24 
1.24 

I  New  York,  Cornell  Bulletin  295,  p.  425. 


268 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


country.  Apparently,  the  crop  yields  are  as  good,  or  a 
little  better,  on  the  large  farms  than  on  the  small  ones, 
with  the  exception  of  hay,  which  seems  to  yield  a  little 
better  on  the  smaller  farms.  Certainly  the  small  farms 
are  not  producing  more  per  acre.  In  addition,  much  more 
of  the  food  is  consumed  in  the  production,  since  more 
horses  are  kept  per  acre.  The  smaller  farms  seem  to  be 
too  small  for  the  best  production  from  the  standpoint  of 
the  city,  as  well  as  from  the  standpoint  of  the  farmer. 

172.  Relation  of  size  of  farm  to  keeping  the  boys  on 
the  farm.  —  One  of  the  chief  reasons  why  boys  leave  the 
farm  is  because  there  is  not  enough  work  to  make  it  pay 
to  stay.     There  may  be  work  puttering  around,  but  a  boy 

Table  53.    Relation  op  Size  of  Farm  to  Boys  Leaving  the 
Farm,  674  Farms,  Jefferson  County,  New  York 


Number  of 
Families 

Per  Cent  op  Sons 

Acres  Farmed 

At  Home 

On  Other 
Farms 

Not 
Farmers 

30  or  less     ,     .     . 

31-50      .... 

51-100  .... 
101-150  .... 
151-200  .... 
Over  200       .     .     . 

25 
29 
171 
187 
136 
126 

21% 

52 

75 

78 

72 

84 

33% 
22 

8 
10 
10 

8 

46% 
26 
17 
12 
18 
8 

of  energy  wants  to  do  productive  work.  The  writer  re- 
cently heard  a  farmer  on  a  40-acre  farm  say  that  he  could 
keep  four  men  busy.  His  seventeen-year-old  son  added 
that  he  would  be  no  better  off  in  the  fall  than  in  the  spring. 
They  were  both  right.  The  boy  will  leave  the  farm,  be- 
cause there  is  not  profitable  work  for  him. 

A  study  of  this  question  was  made  in  Jefferson  County, 


SIZE  OF  FARMS  269 

New  York,  on  674  farms.  On  the  smallest  farms,  79  per 
cent  of  the  sons  had  left  home.  On  the  largest  farms,  16 
per  cent  had  left.  About  half  of  those  who  left  the  farms 
have  gone  to  cities  or  towns.  The  others  are  farming 
or  are  working  as  farm  hands  for  neighbors.  The  farmers 
on  the  small  farms  averaged  a  little  older  than  those  on' 
the  large  farms.  But  the  difference  is  not  enough  to  ac- 
count for  the  large  number  of  sons  away  from  home. 

References 

New  York,  Cornell  Bulletin  295. 

U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  Bulletin  259,  pp.  17- 

27. 
Principles  of  Rural  Economics,  T.  N.  Carver,  pp.  117-223. 
Agricultural  Economics,  H.  C.  Taylor,  pp.  117-135. 
Twelfth  Census,  Vol.  V,  Part  I,  pp.  xliii-liii  and  186-205. 


CHAPTER  8 

SIZE  OF  FARM  AND  OTHER  FACTORS  IN  DIFFER- 
ENT   REGIONS    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES 

Figures  on  the  average  size  of  farm  for  the  United  States 
are  hard  to  interpret,  because  greenhouses,  arid  ranges, 
and  many  other  equally  striking  contrasts  are  all  averaged 
together.  There  are  few  states  that  have  a  sufficiently 
uniform  type  of  farming  to  make  the  figures  of  much  sig- 
nificance. But  it  is  possible  to  select  counties  in  which 
nearly  all  the  farms  are  of  one  type.  The  best  way  to 
study  any  problem  in  agriculture  is  to  select  a  region  that 
is  an  agricultural  unit. 

The  counties  here  compared  show  conditions  and  tend- 
encies in  the  corn-belt,  the  cotton-belt,  truck-growing 
region,  hard  winter  wheat  region,  spring  wheat  region, 
irrigated  region,  and  semi-arid  region. 

173.  A  county  in  the  cotton-belt.  —  Dallas  County, 
Alabama,  is  a  region  of  good  soils.  Its  farms  were  typical 
large  plantations  before  the  war.  In  1860,  there  were 
7785  white  persons  in  the  county  and  25,760  slaves.  The 
colored  population  has  increased  faster  than  the  white. 
In  1910,  there  were  9890  white  persons  and  43,511 
negroes.  One  in  10  of  the  farmers  in  1910  was  white. 
The  farmers  are  so  largely  negroes  that  the  county  may 
be  used  to  study  the  adjustment  of  size  of  farm  and  other 
factors  to  farming  by  negroes. 

The  Census  does  not  give  the  size  of  farms  by  counties 

270 


OTBER   PACTOns  tn  BlFFEttENT  REGIONS     271 

before  1880,  but  we  know  that  before  the  war  the  county- 
was  divided  into  large  plantations  of  several  hundred 
acres.  By  1880,  the  average  size  of  farm  had  decreased 
to  103  acres  and  in  1910  it  had  decreased  to  44  acres,  or 
31  acres  of  tillable  land.  The  proportion  of  farms 
operated  by  owners  has  rapidly  decreased.  In  1910,  only 
11  per  cent  were  so  operated.  The  land  owners  have 
found  it  best  to  divide  up  the  land  into  tracts  that  can 
be  worked  by  one  negro  family.  The  number  of  farms 
of  less  than  50  acres  has  more  than  doubled  since  1880. 

The  average  farm  in  1910  grew  about  19  acres  of  cotton, 
5  acres  of  corn,  and  2  acres  of  all  other  crops.  There  was 
an  average  of  a  little  over  one  mature  horse  or  mule  per 
farm.  This  shows  the  typical  farm  of  the  colored  farmer, 
"  20  acres  and  a  mule."  There  was  a  little  over  one  cow 
per  farm,  two  hogs,  and  14  head  of  poultry,  and  less  than 
$50  worth  of  machinery  per  farm. 

These  farms  with  19  acres  of  cotton  and  a  mule  are 
family-farms.  This  is  about  all  the  work  a  mule  can  do 
and  about  all  the  work  a  colored  family  cares  to  do.  It 
provides  full  work  for  a  family  in  cotton-picking  season, 
and  nearly  full  work  in  the  cotton  chopping  season,  but  not 
during  the  remainder  of  the  year.  How  prosperous  these 
farms  are  may  be  judged  from  the  fact  that  the  value  of  the 
house  and  all  other  farm  buildings  averages  $189  per  farm. 

Any  county  in  the  cotton-belt,  where  nearly  all  the 
farms  are  operated  by  negroes,  shows  the  same  figures. 
Bolivar  County,  Mississippi,  has  over  12  colored  farmers 
for  each  white  farmer.  The  farms  average  31  acres  with 
24  acres  of  tillable  land.  There  was  a  little  over  one  work 
animal  per  farm,  less  than  one  cow,  nearly  two  hogs,  11 
head  of  poultry,  15  acres  of  cotton,  4  acres  of  corn,  2  acres 
of  hay  and  forage  crops,  and  an  acre  or  two  of  other  crops. 


272 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


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$128 

$2,500 

$16 

$567 

$3.57 
$156 

eioNrnj 

'AXNQOO 

ABNajjajv 

§g     15 

$13,982 
$93 

$2,675 

$29 

$383 

$4.16 
$202 

Hao^  Aia^ 

'AXNaOQ 

aavMvaaQ 

2S    ^ 

$5,495 
$27 

$2,011 

$22 

$327 

$3.52 
$152 

Hvxn 
'axnuoo 

HVXfl 

IN  CO        (N 

00  ■*       o> 

$6,576 
$68 

$794 
$18 

$191 

$4.44 
$109 

Aaeaaf  Ma>j 

'AXNnoo 

aaxsaonoao 

(N  t^        05 

«5  Tjt        ;0 

$5,418 
$71 

$1,911 

$40 

$381 

$8.10 
$312 

(a^iqM) 

VKvavay 

'AXNnoo 

aa.MOO 

-H  t^         CO 

$1,583 

$14 

$291 

$6 

$69 

$1.47 
$35 

(pajO]oa) 

vwvavav 

'AXNnoo 

SVTIVQ 

•*  CO         -H 

$997 
$17 

$189 

$6 

$50 

$1.61 
$31 

Average  acres  per  farm  . 
Acres  of  improved  land  . 
Per  cent  of  farms  oper- 
ated by  owners       .     . 

Value  of  all  property  per 

farm 

Value  of  land  and  build- 
Value    of    buildings    per 

farm 

Value    of    buildings    per 

iacre  of  improved  land 
Value  of  machinery  per 

farm 

Value  of  machinery  per 

Hired  labor  per  farm  ^    . 

OTHER   FACTORS  IN  DIFFERENT  REGIONS     273 


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274  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

In  1910,  there  were  seven  counties  in  Mississippi  that 
had  over  10  colored  farmers  for  each  white  farmer.  The 
area  of  improved  land  per  farm  in  these  counties  varied 
from  23  to  29  acres  with  an  average  of  25  acres. 

When  we  realize  that  large  plantations  have  been  forced 
to  divide  into  these  small  patches  and  use  a  tenant  system 
rather  than  operate  with  hired  labor,  we  are  forced  to  the 
conclusion  that  these  small  farms  are  generally  better 
adapted  to  the  conditions,  otherwise  they  could  not  have 
driven  out  the  large  farm. 

174.  Cotton  farms  of  white  farmers.  —  How  large  a 
farm  would  be  best  in  the  cotton-belt  in  a  region  where 
white  farmers,  who  have  the  necessary  capital,  do  the 
farm  work  as  such  farmers  do  in  the  North,  is  hard  to  say, 
because  there  are  few,  if  any,  counties  where  the  land  is 
nearly  all  worked  by  well-to-do  white  farmers. 

In  Coffee  County,  Alabama,  there  are  nearly  5  white 
farmers  for  each  colored  farmer.  The  average  size  of  farm 
in  this  county  in  1910  was  91  acres  with  47  acres  of  im- 
proved land.  The  farms  had  only  one  and  one-third  work 
animals  per  farm,  but  they  raised  about  37  acres  of  crops 
per  farm,  half  of  which  was  cotton. 

These  are  family-farms,  as  indicated  by  the  fact  that 
hired  labor  cost  only  $35  per  farm.  These  farmers  were 
nearly  all  poor,  as  is  indicated  by  the  fact  that  the  total 
value  of  all  farm  property  per  farm  was  only  $1583.  If 
these  persons  had  more  money  so  that  they  could  use 
more  mules  and  machinery,  it  is  probable  that  larger 
farms  would  be  found  to  be  more  efficient. 

The  difficulty  of  getting  cotton  picked  usually  limits 
the  area  of  this  crop  to  what  the  family  can  pick.  But  if 
there  is  money  enough  to  provide  mules  and  equipment, 
other  crops  can  be  grown.     It  will  be  seen  that  these 


OTHER   FACTORS  IN  DIFFERENT  REGIONS     275 

white  farmers  are  farming  more  land  than  the  colored 
farmers  not  by  increasing  the  area  of  cotton,  but  by  adding 
on  other  crops.  This  also  enables  them  to  use  their  work 
animals  to  a  better  advantage.  Each  work  animal  raises 
8  more  acres  of  crops  than  in  Dallas  County.  By  carrying 
this  a  little  farther,  and  by  adding  on  more  live-stock  and 
with  a  little  day  help,  a  white  family  that  has  a  grown 
son  can  raise  100  acres  of  crops,  about  one-fourth  of  which 
is  cotton.  There  are  a  considerable  number  of  farmers 
scattered  throughout  the  South  who  are  doing  this.  If 
there  are  no  sons  a  hired  man  by  the  year  will  be 
needed. 

In  general,  the  area  in  crops,  as  well  as  the  yield  per  acre, 
must  be  increased  before  the  individual  worker  in  the 
South  can  be  very  prosperous.  Most  of  the  white  farmers 
of  the  South  lack  capital  and  many  of  them  lack  the  edu- 
cation necessary  for  efficiency.^  The  South  can  never 
prosper  so  long  as  it  drives  a  one-mule  team. 

175.  A  truck-growing  region.  —  Gloucester  County, 
New  Jersey,  is  a  region  largely  devoted  to  truck  crops. 
In  this  county  the  number  of  farms  of  over  100  acres  has 
decreased.  Farms  of  50-99  acres  are  most  numerous, 
but  there  are  more  farms  of  less  than  50  acres  than  there 
are  of  over  100  acres.  The  average  size  of  the  farm  has  de- 
creased slightly  in  the  past  40  years.  In  1910,  there 
were  62  acres  per  farm  or  47  acres  of  improved  land.  There 
was  an  average  of  14  acres  of  potatoes,  sweet  potatoes, 
and  vegetables,  and  16  acres  of  other  crops  per  farm. 

Small  grain  has  almost  disappeared  from  this  county. 
A  small  area  of  corn  and  hay  continues  to  be  grown  for 

'North  Carolina,  Bulletin  84  calls  the  "one-horse  farm"  the  chief 
enemy  of  progressive  agriculture.  See  also  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bureau  of 
Plant  Industry,  Bulletin  259,  p.  18.' 


276  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

feed.  In  1909,  there  was  about  one  acre  of  small  grain, 
8  of  corn,  and  7  acres  of  hay  and  forage  crops  per  farm. 
There  was  an  average  of  a  little  less  than  three  work  ani- 
mals and  three  cows,  nearly  three  hogs,  and  61  head  of 
poultry  per  farm.  The  total  live-stock  amounted  to  about 
7  animal  units. 

The  farms  in  this  county  are  family-farms,  as  is  indicated 
by  a  hired  labor  cost  of  $312  per  farm.  The  income  is 
mostly  derived  from  truck  crops  and  eggs.  Most  of  the 
feed  is  raised.  The  largest  single  item  of  cash  expense  is 
$278  per  farm  for  fertilizers.  This  amounts  to  about  $9 
for  each  acre  of  crops. 

When  one-third  of  the  area  is  in  vegetables,  it  appears 
that  about  30-50  acres  of  crops,  together  with  a  little  live- 
stock, provides  full  work  for  a  farm  family. 

176.  An  irrigated  region.  —  Utah  County,  Utah,  has 
been  settled  for  many  years.  There  has  been  time  for 
adjustment  of  the  size  of  farm  to  meet  conditions.  General 
farming  is  followed.  The  chief  products  are  alfalfa,  wheat, 
sugar  beets,  and  potatoes.  Oats,  corn,  barley,  vegetables, 
fruit,  and  eggs  are  also  important. 

The  size  of  farm  has  been  increasing  for  the  past  20 
years,  but  the  area  of  improved  land  per  farm  has  been 
fairly  constant. 

In  1910,  there  was  an  average  of  43  acres  of  improved 
land  per  farm.  The  area  of  improved  land,  the  total 
capital,  and  number  of  work  animals  are  approximately 
the  same  as  in  the  truck  growing  county  in  New  Jersey. 

177.  A  hilly  dairy  region  in  New  York.  —  Delaware 
county.  New  York,  is  a  noted  dairy  region.  The  county 
derives  most  of  its  income  from  cows.  The  average  size 
of  farm  is  152  acres.  There  was  an  average  of  39  acres  of 
crops  and  about  16  cows  per  farm.     There  was  an  average 


OTHER  FACTORS  IN  DIFFERENT  REGIONS      211 

of  only  1 .7  acres  of  crops  to  the  animal  unit.  The  cost  of 
purchased  feed  amounted  to  about  $400  per  farm  or  $25 
per  cow.  The  farmers  raise  very  little  except  hay  and 
corn  for  the  silo.  The  region  is  not  very  prosperous, 
although  it  has  splendid  buildings  and  so  looks  prosperous. 
The  buildings  were  mostly  built  one  or  two  generations 
ago  when  considerable  income  was  being  derived  from 
lumber.  It  is  now  difficult  for  a  young  man  of  small 
means  to  buy  a  farm  and  pay  for  it  out  of  the  land,  in 
spite  of  the  fact  that  the  women  usually  help  milk.  The 
small  number  of  tenants  shows  that  few  persons  are  trying 
to  start  without  capital.  Most  of  the  farmers  inherited 
their  farms.  Some  of  the  few  tenants  are  on  land  in  which 
they  have,  or  will  have,  a  part  interest  by  inheritance. 
There  are  some  rich,  prosperous  farms  in  the  river  valleys, 
but  the  averages  reflect  the  condition  on  the  hills,  because 
most  of  the  farms  are  hill-farms. 

The  greatest  difficulty  is  the  small  area  of  tillable  land. 
This  not  only  fails  to  raise  cash  crops  but  fails  to  raise 
enough  feed.  The  greatest  need  of  the  region  is  diversified 
farming.  But  this  calls  for  more  tillable  land  to  the  farm, 
or  larger  farms. 

There  are  a  few  farmers  in  this  region  who  have  more 
tillable  land  and  who  sell  cash  crops  as  well  as  milk.  These 
are  usually  doing  well.  The  best  thing  for  this  region 
would  be  to  combine  farms  so  that  there  would  be  twice  the 
area  of  land  in  crops  and  twice  the  pasture  area.  The  best 
half  of  the  cows  from  the  two  farms  should  be  kept.  Each 
of  these  cows  would  then  have  double  the' pasture  area,  so 
that  the  pasture  would  furnish  feed  for  a  longer  period  and 
be  improved.  Half  the  tillable  land  would  then  be 
available  for  cash  crops.  The  profit  on  half  as  many  good 
cows  that  have  abundant  pasture  would  be  greater  thaii 


278  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

on  the  present  number.  The  combined  farms  could  be 
farmed  with  one  less  horse  than  the  separate  farms. 
This  would  make  an  average  of  88  acres  of  crops,  16  cows, 
and  3.4  horses  per  farm.  Some  farmers  have  made  this 
change  and  prospered  thereby. 

178.  A  dairy  region  in  Illinois.  —  McHenry  County, 
Illinois,  is  an  important  dairy  region.  The  farms  average 
129  acres  with  68  acres  of  crops  and  18  cows.  There  is  an 
average  of  2.1  acres  of  crops  per  animal  unit.  The 
farmers  in  this  region  usually  raise  most  of  their  feed, 
raise  corn  for  hog  feed,  and  small  grain  and  corn  for  sale. 
The  combination  of  dairying  with  cash  crops  and  hogs 
raised  on  home-grown  corn  makes  a  very  good  business. 
Some  farmers  in  this  region  sell  little  but  milk.  Usually 
they  are  not  doing  as  well  as  those  that  follow  diversified 
farming. 

Dairy  farms  follow  the  same  principle  as  other  American 
farms,  they  tend  to  the  family  size.  About  fifteen  to 
twenty  cows  is  the  average  number  that  a  family  can  care 
for.  Of  course,  some  are  larger  and  some  are  smaller. 
The  farmers  in  McHenry  County  are  doing  fairly  well. 
With  only  $202  worth  of  hired  labor  they  raise  an  average 
of  68  acres  of  crops,  keep  about  18  cows,  and  raise  hogs 
and  young  stock.  There  is  a  total  of  32  animal  units  per 
farm. 

179.  Farms  in  the  corn-belt.  —  Shelby  County,  Iowa, 
is  typical  of  considerable  of  the  corn-belt.  It  is  a  good 
county  to  study,  because  it  does  not  have  large  cities  that 
result  in  the  mixture  of  many  types  of  farms.  Most  of 
the  farms  in  this  county  are  typical  corn  farms. 

In  1909,  there  were  58  acres  of  corn  per  farm,  31  acres  of 
small  grain,  23  acres  of  hay,  and  less  than  an  acre  of  pota- 
toes.    There  was  an  average  of  6  work  animals,  27  cattle, 


OTHER  FACTORS  IN  DIFFERENT  REGIONS      279 


30  mature  hogs,  and  110  poultry  per  farm.     A  total  of 
40  animal  units  are  kept. 

Most  of  the  farms  in  this  region  were  80  or  160  acres 
when  the  country  was  first  settled.  The  farms  of  less 
than  100  acres  are  rapidly  disappearing,  and  the  160-acre 
farms  are  decreasing  but  are  still  the  most  numerous  size. 
Farms  of  175  to  500  acres  are  increasing. 

Table  55.  —  Size  of  Farms,  Shelby  County,  Iowa 


Number 

DF  Farms 

Size  of  Farms 

(ACBES) 

1880 

1890 

1900 

1910 

Under  20 .     . 

14 

50 

77 

93 

20-49      . 

238 

149 

134 

108 

50-99      . 

763 

729 

484 

333 

100-174   . 

[943 

888 

175-2.59    . 

915 

1474 

i  469 

I  257 

479 

260-499    . 

285 

500-999    . 

15 

22 

23 

26 

1000  and  over 

1 

0 

0 

1 

Average  acres 

123 

103 

156 

167 

Average        ir 

n- 

proved   acr 

es          100 

93 

147 

159 

Since  1880,  the  number  of  farms  of  20-99  acres  has  de- 
creased from  1001  to  441.  During  the  same  time,  the 
larger  farms  increased  from  931  to  1679.  The  farms  of 
less  than  20  acres  are  mostly  homes  of  retired  farmers  or 
of  persons  who  hire  out  to  farmers  or  do  other  kinds  of 
work.  Few  of  them  are  real  farms.  Few  of  the  farmers 
on  farms  of  50  acres  depend  entirely  on  the  farm  for  their 
living.     Many  of  them  work  for  neighbors. 

The  average  farm  in  1910  contained  167  acres,  of  which 
159  acres  were  improved  land.  This  is  over  three  times 
the  area  of  improved  land  in  the  county  in  New  Jersey. 


280  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

If  we  measure  a  farm  by  the  amount  of  labor,  these  are 
really  smaller  farms  than  the  farms  in  New  Jersey.  About 
the  same  labor  was  hired  as  in  the  county  in  Utah  and  half 
as  much  as  in  New  Jersey,  and  less  labor  than  in  the  dairy 
county  in  Illinois.  These  Iowa  farms  are  not  bonanza 
farms.  They  are  family-farms.  With  the  intelligent  use 
of  horses  and  machinery,  a  family  in  this  county  can  farm 
"320  acres  and  do  it  well  without  hiring  much  help.  The 
movement  in  this  county  is  toward  farms  of  160  or  more 
acres. 

The  counties  studied  in  Alabama,  New  Jersey,  and 
Utah  are  making  only  a  limited  use  of  machinery  and 
horse  power,  because  the  types  of  farming  are  so  largely 
dependent  on  hand  labor.  Shelby  County,  Iowa,  is  typical 
of  an  entirely  different  system  of  farming.  When  one 
man  begins  to  drive  four  horses  instead  of  one  or  two,  we 
have  entirely  different  conditions. 

As  we  would  naturally  expect,  the  farmers  who  drive 
four-horse  teams  are  prospering.  Much  of  the  rise  in  land 
values  in  the  Central  West  is  due  to  the  great  economy 
in  production  that  has  come  from  the  use  of  modern 
machinery. 

It  is  often  said  that  this  machinery  has  saved  horse 
labor,  but  the  saving  is  in  men  more  than  in  horses.  The 
negro's  mule  raises  as  many  acres  of  crops  as  does  the  horse 
in  Iowa,  but  the  negro  drives  one  mule.  The  Iowa  farmer 
drives  more  horses,  so  that  he  raises  nearly  five  times  the 
crop  area  per  man.  After  the  county  was  settled,  the 
size  of  farms  began  to  decrease.  The  idea  of  driving  more 
than  two  horses  then  came  in  and  in  twenty  years  raised 
the  size  of  farms  65  per  cent. 

It  is  this  change  that  has  resulted  in  the  decrease  in 
rural  population  in  Iowa. 


OTHER  FACTORS  IN  DIFFERENT  REGIONS      281 

The  population  of  this  county  rose  rapidly  until  1890. 
It  was  a  little  larger  in  1900,  but  decreased  8  per  cent  in 
the  next  ten  years.  To  those  who  have  not  studied  the 
situation,  this  appears  as  a  great  calamity,  but  it  is  an 
indication  of  the  greatly  increased  efficiency  of  farmers, 
due  to  machinery  and  education.  Probably  the  highest 
point  in  population  was  reached  in  the  early  nineties. 
Until  this  time,  very  few  men  drove  over  two  horses  on  any 
farm  machinery  except  on  the  grain  binder  and,  occasion- 
ally, on  a  smoothing  harrow.  The  two-horse  team  was 
the  regular  way  of  farming.  Considerable  corn  cultivation 
was  still  done  with  one  horse.  During  the  nineties,  men 
began  to  drive  four-horse  teams  on  discs,  gang  plows,  and 
smoothing  harrows.  This  practice  has  continued  to 
increase,  but  has  not  yet  reached  its  limit.  We  shall 
expect  the  driving  of  three,  four,  and  five  horses  to  con- 
tinue to  increase. 

When  a  farm  family  with  only  $156  worth  of  help  raises 
58  acres  of  corn,  31  of  small  grain,  and  23  of  hay,  besides 
caring  for  8  horses  and  mules,  27  cattle,  30  mature  hogs 
and  their  pigs,  and  110  poultry,  we  do  not  need  so  many 
farmers  as  when  it  requires  one  man  to  drive  each  horse. 
To  do  this  amount  of  work  would  probably  have  required 
two  families  in  1880.  The  population  of  rural  Iowa  has 
decreased  because  the  farmers  have  learned  how  one  man 
may  do  almost  as  much  work  as  two  did  before,  and  do 
it  better.  Nearly  one-fifth  of  the  farmers  who  own  their 
own  farms  rent  additional  land.  This  is  because  they  find 
that  they  can  farm  more  land  without  having  to  increase 
their  horses,  machinery,  or  labor  to  any  great  extent. 

In  spite  of  other  types  of  farming  near  cities,  Iowa  as 
a  whole  shows  the  same  changes.  The  farms  of  20-49 
acres  decreased  in  number  27  per  cent  in  the  ten  years  from 


282  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

1900  to  1910.  Farms  of  50-99  acres  decreased  22  per 
cent.  Farms  of  100-174  acres  were  practically  stationary. 
But  farms  of  175-499  acres  increased  5  per  cent. 

It  is  evident  that  for  the  usual  types  of  farming  in 
Iowa,  160  to  320  acres  is  the  most  efficient  size  of  farm. 
At  the  same  time  that  the  family  farm  is  increasing  in 
size,  the  number  of  large  farms  is  decreasing.  There  is 
no  tendency  toward  "bonanza"  farms.  There  is  also  an 
increase  in  the  number  of  places  of  less  than  20  acres. 
Some  of  these  are  greenhouses,  gardens,  and  other  types 
of  farming  that  cluster  about  cities.  Probably  more  of 
them  are  homes  of  persons  who  derive  most  of  their  in- 
come from  some  other  source. 

At  the  same  time  that  the  farms  in  much  of  the  Central 
West  are  increasing  in  size,  the  farms  in  New  Jersey, 
Delaware,  and  Alabama  are  decreasing  in  area.  The 
same  change  is  taking  place  around  the  cities  of  the  Central 
West.  Whenever  general  farming  is  replaced  by  truck 
growing  and  other  hand  labor  types,  the  farms  become 
smaller.  In  such  states  as  Ohio  and  Indiana,  the  farms  in 
the  general  farming  regions  are  increasing  in  area  at  the 
same  time  that  farms  around  the  rapidly  growing  cities 
are  being  divided  up  for  truck  patches.  It  is  these  con- 
flicting movements  that  make  it  necessary  to  study  areas 
that  are  fairly  uniform  in  type  of  farming  in  order  to 
understand  the  conditions. 

180.  The  hard  winter  wheat  region.  —  Clay  County, 
Nebraska,  is  typical  of  much  of  the  region  growing  hard 
winter  wheat.  This  county  has  enough  rainfall  so  that 
corn  can  be  grown.  Corn  and  wheat  each  occupy  about 
two-fifths  of  the  area  in  crops.  Oats  and  hay  each  occupy 
about  one-tenth  of  the  area.  Practically  all  of  the  wheat 
and  some  of  the  corn  and  oats  are  sold.     A  considerable 


OTHER   FACTORS  IN  DIFFERENT  REGIONS      28B 


part  of  the  corn  is  fed  to  hogs.     Colts,  beef,  butter,  and 
eggs  are  minor  products. 

Most  of  the  settlement  of  this  county  took  place  be- 
tween 1870  and  1885.  Many  of  the  settlers  were  not 
soldiers  and  so  were  entitled  to  only  80-acre  homesteads. 
In  1880,  there  were  886  farms  of  from  50-99  acres.  Practi- 
cally all  of  these  were  80  acres. 

Table  ,56.  —  Changes  in  Size   op  Farms,  Clay  County, 
Nebraska 


Size  of  Farm 

Number  op  Farms 

1880 

1890 

1900 

1910 

Under  50  acr 
50-99      . 
100-174    . 
175-259    . 
260-499    . 
500-999    . 

es 

109 

886 

1176 

11 

1 

64 

482 

1394 

21 
0 

184 

334 

f  858 

\  377 

1  304 

29 

1 

158 
186 
794 
451 
321 
22 

Over  1000 

0 

Average  acres    . 
Average    improved 
acres      .... 

134 
100 

160 
139 

172 
146 

182 
163 

The  county  was  not  fully  settled  before  grain  binders 
and  mowers  came  into  general  use.  About  1895,  the  prac- 
tice of  driving  four  or  five  horses  on  gang  plows  and  wide 
harrows  started.  In  a  few  years  the  plowing,  harrow- 
ing, discing,  drilling,  harvesting,  and  some  other  opera- 
tions began  to  be  done  with  four-  or  five-horse  teams. 

The  80-acre  farm  does  not  furnish  full  employment 
for  one  man  who  drives  4  horses.  In  thirty  years,  the 
number  of  farms  of  50-99  acres  has  decreased  from  886  to 
186.     This  size  of  farm  has  been  practically  eliminated. 


284  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

The  160-acre  farm  is  not  large  enough  to  fully  employ 
a  small  family.  One  man,  with  the  help  of  a  son  during 
school  vacations,  can  do  all  the  work  on  200  acres,  except 
in  harvest.  The  160-acre  farm  is  still  the  most  numerous 
in  the  county  and  may  so  continue.  While  not  large 
enough  for  greatest  efficiency,  it  provides  a  fairly  good  liv- 
ing. Many  persons  are  content  with  this  area,  if  they  do 
not  have  sons  to  help. 

Some  persons  who  have  only  money  enough  to  own  160 
acres  do  not  always  find  additional  land  to  rent  even  if 
they  desire  it.  Sometimes  a  tenant  cannot  get  more 
than  160  acres. 

The  number  of  farms  of  100  to  174  acres  decreased  from 
858  to  794  in  the  last  ten  years.  During  the  same  time, 
the  number  of  farms  of  175  to  259  acres  increased  20  per 
cent  and  the  number  of  260  to  499  acres  increased  6  per  cent. 

It  is  evident  that  farms  of  about  240  to  320  acres  havt 
a  very  great  advantage  over  all  other  sizes.  This  is  about 
the  area  necessary  for  a  family-farm  under  the  conditions 
in  this  region.  How  fully  the  owners,  as  well  as  the 
tenants,  realize  the  importance  of  having  land  enough  to 
provide  full  employment  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  36  per 
cent  of  the  farmers  who  worked  their  own  land  rented 
additional  land.  There  is  no  tendency  to  develop  bonanza 
farms.  There  are  only  a  few  farms  of  over  500  acres,  and 
the  number  is  decreasing. 

On  one  five-mile  road  in  Clay  county  that  the  writer 
has  traveled  over  many  times  there  used  to  be  13  houses ; 
now  there  are  8.  If  it  were  in  the  East,  where  lumber  is 
cheap,  the  other  5  would  be  left  as  abandoned  homes. 
But  lumber  is  too  valuable,  so  all  are  torn  down.  Some- 
times a  few  trees  that  have  not  been  removed  are  still 
standing.     The  land  is  all  farmed. 


OTHER   FACTORS  IN  DIFFERENT  REGIONS      285 

Barton  County,  Kansas,  is  one  of  the  leading  counties 
in  the  production  of  hard  winter  wheat.  Corn  is  more 
frequently  injured  by  drouth  in  this  county,  so  that  more 
of  the  land  is  devoted  to  wheat.  The  average  size  of 
farm  has  increased  from  180  acres  in  1880  to  305  acres  in 
1910.  The  most  numerous  size  of  farm  is  260  to  499 
acres.  This  means  that  half  sections,  320  acres,  are  the 
most  popular  size. 

In  1909,  there  was  an  average  of  152  acres  of  wheat, 
36  acres  of  corn,  19  acres  of  hay,  and  3  acres  of  other  crops 
per  farm,  a  total  of  210  acres  of  crops  raised  per  farm  be- 
sides caring  for  cattle,  poultry,  and  other  live-stock.  Yet 
the  hired  labor  on  these  farms  cost  only  $312,  exactly  the 
same  as  on  the  farms  of  62  acres  in  New  Jersey.  Although 
five  times  the  area,  these  farms  are  no  larger  than  the 
New  Jersey  farms  in  terms  of  man-labor.  They  are 
family-farms,  but  there  were  8  work  animals  per  family 
instead  of  3. 

181.  A  spring  wheat  region.  —  Lac  qui  Parle  County, 
Minnesota,  is  typical  of  much  of  the  spring  wheat  region 
of  Minnesota  and  the  Dakotas.  As  might  be  expected, 
these  farms  are  about  the  same  size  as  in  the  winter  wheat 
region.  With  the  driving  of  more  horses  per  team,  the 
size  of  farms  in  this  county  has  rapidly  enlarged.  In 
1910,  there  were  only  half  as  many  farms  of  50-99  acres 
as  in  1900.  The  80-acre  farm  is  practically  eliminated. 
There  are  only  three-fourths  as  many  farms  of  100-174 
acres  as  there  were  ten  years  ago.  The  increases  have 
been  in  the  175-  to  499-acre  groups. 

In  1909,  the  crops  grown  per  farm  averaged  56  acres  of 
wheat,  33  of  oats,  23  of  barley,  24  of  hay,  24  of  corn,  7  of 
flax,  and  3  of  other  crops.  This  makes  a  total  of  170 
acres  of  crops  per  farm.     In  addition,  there  were  approxi- 


286  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

mately  6  dairy  cows,  8  other  cattle,  10  mature  hogs,  and 
93  poultry  per  farm.  All  this  is  done  with  only  $298  worth 
of  hired  labor  per  farm. 

It  is  easy  to  see  why  the  farmers  in  the  Central  West 
are  prosperous.  They  have  learned  how  one  man  may  do 
the  work  of  two  by  putting  the  two  teams  together  and 
dispensing  with  one  driver.  In  the  older  parts  of  the  coun- 
try, the  farms  have  been  divided  into  small  fields,  as  well 
as  small  farms,  and  the  farmers  are  more  conservative, 
so  that  the  use  of  four-horse  teams  is  not  so  frequent.  But 
the  practice  is  gaining  ground  in  all  regions  where  large 
areas  of  small  grain  and  cultivated  crops  are  raised. 
Whenever  this  change  takes  place,  it  is  inevitable  that  the 
farms  become  larger.  They  must  be  large  enough  to 
provide  fairly  full  employment  for  a  family. 

182.  A  dry  fanning  region.  —  As  we  go  from  humid  to 
dry  regions,  the  chances  of  securing  a  crop  become  less  and 
the  size  of  farm  increases.  It  is  necessary  to  have  a  large 
area  in  years  when  a  crop  is  secured,  in  order  to  carry  the 
family  over  dry  years.  Barton  County,  Kansas,  is  less 
certain  of  crops  than  Clay  County,  Nebraska,  or  the 
county  in  Minnesota,  and  has  larger  farms.  As  we  pro- 
ceed to  semiarid  regions,  the  farms  become  larger.  The 
farms  in  Barton  County  average  305  acres.  Rush, 
the  adjoining  county  on  the  west,  is  much  drier.  Here 
the  farms  average  388  acres.  The  next  county,  Ness,  is 
still  drier,  and  the  farms  average  629  acres. 

Sherman  County,  Oregon,  is  a  good  county  to  study  for 
dry  farming  conditions.  The  rainfall  is  only  about  10 
inches,  but  the  low  evaporation  makes  it  possible  to  raise 
wheat  by  dry  farming  methods.  In  this  county,  the 
farms  of  less  than  500  acres  decreased  over  one-half  in  the 
ten  years  from  1900  to  1910.     There  are  almost  as  many 


OTHER  FACTORS  IN  DIFFERENT  REGIONS      287 

farms  of  over  1000  acres  as  there  are  of  less  than  500. 
The  average  size  is  799  acres,  with  588  acres  of  improved 
land.  The  usual  practice  in  this  county  is  to  till  the  land 
one  year  to  save  moisture  and  raise  a  crop  the  next  year. 
The  attempt  is  to  save  two  years  of  rain  for  one  year's 
crop.  In  1909,  there  were  264  acres  of  wheat  and  42 
acres  of  other  crops  per  farm.  But  when  measured  in 
terms  of  man-labor  these  farms  were  only  a  little  larger 
than  the  62-acre  farms  in  New  Jersey.  But  there  were  13 
work  animals  per  farm  instead  of  3. 

183.  Size  of  farms  in  some  typical  states.  —  Table  57 
shows  the  size  groups  in  which  the  number  of  farms  in- 
creased or  decreased  in  the  ten  years  1900  to  1910.^ 

In  nearly  all  states  there  is  an  increase  in  number  of 
farms  of  less  than  20  acres.  Some  of  this  increase  is  due  to 
the  very  commendable  tendency  for  persons  who  are  em- 
ployed in  towns  to  live  on  small  places  where  some  products 
may  be  raised  for  home  use.  In  some  states,  the  retired 
farmers  have  many  such  small  places  around  towns.  Prob- 
ably in  every  state  there  is  an  increase  in  greenhouses  and 
other  intensive  types  of  farming  near  the  towns  and  cities. 

In  the  states  where  grain,  hay,  and  live-stock  farming 
predominates,  the  farms  of  175  to  259  acres  usually 
show  the  most  rapid  rate  of  increase.  The  sizes  that 
show  the  largest  percentage  of  increase  are  marked  +  +• 
In  Ohio  and  Indiana,  the  most  rapid  increases  have  been 
in  the  100-  to  174-acre  group ;  in  New  York  and  Minnesota 
in  the  260-  to  499-acre  group.  The  farms  of  20  to  100  acres 
are  usually  decreasing  rapidly.  This  is  the  region  where 
farmers  are  driving  more  horses  per  man.     Under  these 

'  In  comparing  states  where  the  number  of  farms  have  increased  in  all 
groups  percentages  must  be  used,  but  for  the  states  here  used  the  num- 
bera  show  the  point. 


288 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


conditions  the  farms  of  20  to  100  acres  are  too  small  for 
farming  with  horses  and  machinery,  and  appear  to  be  too 
large  for  greenhouses,  homes  of  town  workers,  and  others 
who  make  up  the  increase  in  places  of  under  20  acres. 

Table  57.  —  Increases  and  Decreases  in  Numbers  of  Farms 


Under 

20 

50 

100 

175 

260 

50O 

20 

TO 

TO 

TO 

TO 

TO 

ACRES 

Acres 

49 

99 

174 

259 

499 

OR 

More 

Grain,    hay,    live- 

stock 

New  York  .     . 

+  + 

— 

— 

— 

+ 

+    + 

— 

Ohio 

+ 

— 

— 

+ 

— 

Indiana  . 

+   + 

— 

— 

+    + 

+ 

— 

— 

Illinois    . 

+ 

— - 

— 

— 

+    + 

+ 

— 

Iowa 

+   + 





+ 

+    + 

+ 

— 

Missouri 

+ 

— 



+ 

+    + 

+ 

+ 

Wisconsin 

+ 

— • 

+ 

+ 

+    + 

+ 

— 

Minnesota 

+ 

— 

— • 

— 

+ 

+    + 

+ 

Truck  growing 

Connecticut     . 

+ 

4- 

— 

— 

— 

— 

+ 

Massachusetts 

+ 

+ 

— - 

— 

— 



New  Jersey 

+ 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

Delaware     .     . 

+ 

+ 

+ 

— 



— 

— 

Maryland    . 

+ 

+ 

+ 

— 

— - 



— 

Cotton 

North  Carolina 

+ 

+ 

+ 

— ■ 

— 

— 

— 

South  Carolina 

+ 

+ 

+ 

— 

— 

— 

— 

Georgia        .     . 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 





— 

Alabama      .     . 

+ 

+ 

+ 

— 

— 

— 

— 

Mississippi  .     . 

+ 

+ 

+ 

— 

— 

— 

— 

Louisiana    . 

+ 

+ 

+ 

— 

— 



— 

+  +  indicates  sizes  showing  most  rapid  rates  of  increase. 

In  regions  where  truck  growing  or  cotton  predominates, 
farms  of  less  than  100  acres  are  increasing  most  rapidly. 

Farms  of  over  500  acres  are  decreasing  in  number  in 
nearly  all  the  states  except  in  arid  regions  and  in  regions 
where  much  of  the  land  is  kept  in  woods  or  pasture. 
Tliese  results  agree  with  all  the  previous  discussion  of  size 
of  farm. 


OTHER  FACTORS  IN  DIFFERENT  REGIONS     289 

184.  Conclusion  on  the  size  of  farm.  —  From  Table  54, 
it  is  evident  that  a  work  animal  can  raise  18  to  30  acres  of 
crops.  If  nearly  all  the  crops  are  tilled,  20  acres  is  some- 
times full  work.  If  most  of  the  land  is  in  small  grain  and 
hay,  the  area  may  be  considerably  more.  With  a  mixture 
of  all  three,  such  as  is  common  on  diversified  farms,  a 
work  animal  can  usually  raise  25  to  30  acres  of  crops. 

Every  farm  ought  to  have  at  least  two  men  for  efficient 
work.  If  there  are  no  sons  working  at  home,  then  there 
ought  to  be  one  hired-man.  Most  of  the  better  class  of 
farms  have  the  equivalent  of  one  man  besides  the  operator. 

If  most  of  the  work  is  done  with  one  horse  tools,  and  if 
a  horse  can  raise  20  acres  of  crops,  it  is  evident  that  there 
should  be  about  40  acres  of  crops  and  two  work  animals 
per  farm.  This  is  practically  the  condition  in  the  truck 
growing  counties. 

If  much  of  the  work  is  done  with  three-  and  four-horse 
teams,  it  is  evident  that  two  persons  can  then  raise  150 
to  200  acres  of  crops  if  they  have  help  in  harvest.  This  is 
the  condition  in  the  general  farming  counties  studied. 

Most  farms  have  pasture  land  and  other  land  not  in 
crops.  It  is  evident  that  for  types  of  farming  where  grain, 
hay,  and  live-stock  are  the  chief  products,  the  farms  must 
be  from  150  to  300  acres  for  efficiency.  This  agrees  with 
the  studies  of  profits  in  relation  to  size  of  farm. 

For  truck  growing,  80  acres  is  usually  as  large  a  farm 
as  300  in  general  farming.  An  acre  partly  covered  with 
greenhouses  may  be  an  equally  large  business. 

Whatever  the  type  of  farming,  the  farm  should  be  large 
enough  to  allow  for  the  use  of  the  well  established  labor- 
saving  practices,  and  large  enough  to  provide  a  variety  of 
products  that  make  a  full  year's  work. 


CHAPTER  9 
CAPITAL 

The  capital  per  farm  was  fairly  constant  until  the  last 
fifteen  years.  The  amount  of  money  required  to  buy  a 
farm  and  equip  it  has  now  suddenly  increased.  Along 
with  this  change  has  gone  an  increase  in  the  number  of 
tenants,  but  it  has  been  shown  that  the  proportion  of  the 
agricultural  workers  who  own  their  farms  has  not  changed 
much.  The  proportion  of  hired-men  has  decreased  as 
rapidly  as  tenants  have  increased.  (Table  65.)  The 
higher  land  values  and  greater  investments  in  machinery 
all  call  for  more  capital  than  was  once  necessary.  The 
average  capital  per  farm  in  1910  was  $  6444. 

185.  Relation  of  capital  to  profits.  —  We  have  already 
seen  how  important  it  is  to  have  a  farm  large  enough  for 
efficient  work.  So  long  as  we  deal  with  one  type  of  farm- 
ing, size  of  farm  is  a  good  measure  of  size  of  business,  but 
when  many  types  of  farming  are  compared,  capital  is  a 
better  measure. 

The  capital  available  is  becoming  increasingly  important 
in  farming.  Some  of  this  capital  may  be  secured  by 
renting  land  or  borrowing  money.  Because  of  shortage 
in  capital,  37  per  cent  of  the  farmers  in  the  United  States 
rent  all  the  land  that  they  operate,  and  9  per  cent  own  part 
and  rent  part  of  their  land.  Only  a  little  over  a  half  (54 
per  cent)  of  the  farmers  own  their  entire  farms. 

Of  the  farmers  who  own  all  or  part  of  their  land,  34 

290 


CAPITAL 


291 


Table  58.  —  Average  Value  of  Farm  Property  per  Farm 
IN  THE  United  States 


Year 

Real 

Estate 

Implements 

AND 

Machinery 

Live-stock 

Total 

1850     ..... 

1860 

1870 

1880 

1890 

1900 

1910 

$2258 

3251 
2799 
2544 
2909 
2905 
5471 

$105 
120 
102 
101 
108 
133 
199 

$376 
533 
462 
393 
506 
536 
774 

$2739 
3904 
3363 
3038 
3523 
3574 
6444 

per  cent  are  mortgaged.  Only  36  per  cent  of  the  farmers 
own  all  the  land  that  they  operate  and  are  free  from 
mortgage.  Rented  land,  mortgages,  notes,  and  buying  on 
time  are  different  ways  of  trying  to  increase  the  capital 
available  for  use. 

The  fact  that  so  large  a  proportion  of  the  farmers 
secure  additional  capital  by  some  means  is  an  indication 
of  how  important  farmers  consider  the  capital  to  be. 

Studies  of  profits  made  by  farmers  show  the  same  results. 
In  one  county,  in  New  York,  the  average  owner  with  less 


Table  59.  —  Relation  of  Capital  to  Profits.    615  Farms 
Operated  by  Owners,  Tompkins  County,  New  York 


Capital 

Number  of  Farms 

Average  I/Abor 
Income 

$2,000  or  less      . 

2,001-4,000 .     . 

4,001-6,000 .     . 

6,001-8,000 .     . 

8,001-10,000  . 
10,001-15,000  . 
Over   15,000.     . 

36 
200 
183 
94 
45 
44 
13 

$192 
240 
399 
530 
639 
870 

1164 

292 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


than  $4000  capital  has  not  made  as  much  money  as  a 
hired-man  receives.  Those  with  a  capital  of  $10,000  are, 
on  the  average,  making  very  good  profits. 

It  has  been  suggested  that  the  more  able  men  have  the 
larger  capitals,  and  that  the  results  are  due  to  the  man 
rather  than  to  the  amount  of  capital.  But  most  of  the 
men  who  make  successes  in  farming  begin  with  small 
capital ;  there  must  be  some  able  men  beginning  now. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  there  are  many  able  men,  both  young 
and  old,  who  are  farming  with  very  little  money.  If  the 
question  is  one  of  the  man,  then  these  should  be  doing 
well.  Table  60  shows  how  many  men  with  small  capital 
are  making  fair  profits. 


Table  60.  —  Relation  of  Capital  to  Profits. 
Operated  by  Owners 


615  Farms 


Capital 

Number  of 
Farmers 

Per  Cent  of  the 

Farmers  Making 

Labor  Incomes  of 

OVER  $1000 

$2,000  or  less 

2,001-4,000 . 

4,001-6,000 . 

6,001-8,000 . 

8,001-10,000 
10,001-15,000 
Over   15,000. 

36 
200 
183 
94 
45 
44 
13 

0 
0 
8 
14 
22 
32 
46 

Of  36  farmers  with  capital 
made  a  labor  income  of  $600. 
$4001  capital,  not  one  made  a 
only  one  made  as  much  as  $80 
profits  with  so  small  a  capital 

The  possibilities  of  a  large 
one  has  a  large  capital.     It  is 


of  less  than  $2001,  not  one 
Of  236  who  had  less  than 

labor  income  of  $1000,  and 
0.    The  possibilities  of  large 

do  not  seem  very  bright. 

loss  are  also  greater  when 
almost  impossible  to  make  a 


CAPITAL 


293 


large  loss  with  a  small  capital.  If  one  has  $15,000  invested 
and  is  not  in  debt,  and  if  the  farm  receipts  are  $300  more 
than  the  farm  expenses,  there  will  be  $300  for  the  family 
to  live  on.  But  the  labor  income  will  be  minus  $450, 
since  the  farmer  has  made  this  much  less  than  5  per  cent 
interest  on  his  capital. 

Six  of  the  57  farmers  with  capital  of  over  $10,000  failed 
to  make  5  per  cent  on  their  capital  or  had  minus  labor 
incomes.  One  of  these  had  more  farm  expenses  than 
receipts.  The  largest  loss  was  a  labor  income  of  minus 
$948  made  by  a  man  with  $22,385  capital. 

Records  for  578  farms  in  northern  Livingston  County, 
New  York,  give  the  same  result.  The  farmers  who  are 
using  a  capital  of  less  than  $5000  are  on  the  average  not 
making  as  much  as  hired-men  receive.  They  would  be 
better  off  if  they  lent  their  money  and  hired  out  at  farm 
wages.     (Table  61.) 

Table  61.     Capital  Related  to  Labor  Income.     578  Farms, 
Northern  Livingston  County,  New  York 


Capital 


$5,000  or  less 
5,001-7,500  . 
7,501-10,000 
10,001-15,000 
15.001-20,000 
20,001-30,000 
Over  30,000    . 


Number  of  Farms 


87 
80 
112 
164 
62 
55 
18 


Average 
Labor  Income 


$291 

407 

480 

769 

1001 

1062 

1691 


Of  the  87  farmers  who  used  less  than  $5000  capital, 
only  six  made  labor  incomes  as  large  as  $1000.  One-third 
of  those  who  had  $10,001  to  $15,000  capital  made  labor 
incomes   of    $1000   or   more.     Half    of    those   who    had 


294  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

over   $15,000  capital  made  labor  incomes   of   $1000  or 
more. 

The  need  of  more  capital  is  strikingly  shown.  It  is 
difficult  to  make  reasonable  wages  if  the  capital  is  too 
small.  With  a  sufficient  capital,  it  seems  to  be  much 
easier  to  make  both  interest  on  the  capital  and  pay  for 
the  farmer's  time. 

Table   62.      Relation   of   Capital  to   Profits.     578   Farms, 
Northern  Livingston  County,  New  York 


Capital, 

Per  Cent  op  the  Farmers 

Making   Labor  Incomes  of 

OVER  $1000 

$5,000  or  less 

5,001-7,500 

7,501-10,000 

10,001-15,000 

15,001-20,000 

20,001-30,000 

Over  30,000 

7 
11 

16 
33 
46 
51 
50 

The  same  point  is  shown  for  New  Hampshire  farms. ^ 
Wherever  such  studies  are  made,  the  importance  of 
capital  for  successful  farming  is  strikingly  shown, 

186.  Distribution  of  capital.  —  The  proportion  of  capi- 
tal to  be  invested  in  land,  stock,  and  equipment  varies  with 
the  price  of  land  and  stock  as  well  as  with  the  type  of  farm- 
ing. A  farm  may  have  its  capital  properly  distributed,  after 
which  land  may  double  in  value  and  about  the  same  stock 
and  equipment  may  still  be  best,  but  the  percentage  of  the 
capital  that  each  of  these  represents  may  then  be  different. 
In  1900,  the  proportion  of  the  money  invested  in  buildings 
varied  from  10  per  cent  of  the  capital  on  sugar  plantations 

>  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bureau  Plant  Industry,  Circular  75. 


CAPITAL 


295 


to  43  per  cent  on  farms  that  derived  their  chief  income 
from  flowers  and  plants.  The  amount  invested  in  ma- 
chinery and  implements  was  3  to  4  per  cent  of  the  total 
capital  with  most  types  of  farming,  but  was  22  per  cent 
on  sugar  plantations.  The  investment  in  live-stock  varied 
from  1  per  cent  on  flower  and  plant  farms  to  21  per  cent 
on  live-stock  farms.^ 

Table  63.  —  Average  Capital  and  Its  Distribution  on 
Farms  in  the  United  States 


1900 

1910 

Land  exclusive  of 
buildings   .     .     . 

Buildings       .     .     . 

Implements  and 
machinery 

Live-stock     . 

$2285 
620 

133 
536 

64% 
17 

4 
15 

$4476 
995 

199 

774 

70% 
15 

3 
12 

Total     .     .     . 

$3574 

100% 

$6444 

100% 

187.  Relation    of    capital    to    type    of    farming.  —  The 

types  of  farming  that  require  little  land  usually  require 
more  capital  in  other  forms,  so  that  the  amount  of  money 
required  for  a  given  labor  income  is  not  strikingly  different. 
In  general,  it  appears  that  persons  with  small  capital  had 
best  put  most  of  their  effort  into  raising  crops  to  sell  rather 
than  in  raising  too  much  live-stock,  because  live-stock 
calls  for  additional  investment  above  that  required  in  crop 
production.     (See  pp.  94  to  96.) 

188.  Economy  of  cash  purchases.  —  In  most  parts  of 
the  United  States,  there  are  no  adequate  facilities  for  ob- 
taining credit  for  farmers.  As  a  result,  the  manufacturers 
of  machinery  and  fertilizers  act  as  bankers  as  well  as 
doing  their  regular  business.     So  little  farm  machinery  is 

1  Twelfth  Census,  Vol.  V,  p.  Ivii. 


296  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

sold  for  cash  that  in  some  regions  there  are  no  cash  prices. 
If  machinery  bought  in  the  spring  is  paid  for  by  Octo- 
ber 1,  the  price  is  counted  as  cash. 

Most  of  the  chemical  fertilizers  are  purchased  on  time. 
It  is  hard  to  realize  what  a  tremendous  credit  business 
these  agencies  conduct.  In  order  to  sell  the  product,  they 
must  not  only  produce  machinery  and  fertilizers,  but 
must  furnish  the  farmer  credit.  What  really  happens  is 
that  while  banks  do  not  furnish  the  necessary  capital 
to  farmers,  they  furnish  it  to  the  machinery  and  fertilizer 
companies,  whose  credit  comes  from  the  large  number  of 
farmers  who  owe  them.  It  would  be  much  better  if 
farmers  conducted  their  own  credit  associations,  as  is 
done  in  Europe. 

The  companies  from  which  the  farmer  buys  on  time, 
charge  enough  to  make  a  good  profit  on  the  credit  business, 
as  well  as  on  their  regular  business.  If  there  is  no  cash 
price  on  a  piece  of  machinery,  it  does  not  mean  that  the 
firm  has  generously  donated  the  use  of  money  to  the 
farmer.  He  pays  a  good  high  rate  of  interest  in  the  in- 
creased price. 

Some  cases  in  which  ca'sh  prices  are  offered  give  some 
idea  as  to  what  rates  of  interest  are  really  charged.  The 
writer  obtained  prices  from  one  dealer  as  follows :  a 
plow  that  regularly  sold  for  $13  on  a  year's  time  at  6  per 
cent  interest,  could  be  purchased  for  $12  cash.  If  this 
plow  is  boilght  on  time,  the  real  interest  charge  is  $1.78, 
or  15  per  cent  on  the  cash  price.  He  sells  a  grain  binder 
for  $125  on  a  year's  time  at  6  per  cent,  or  for  $118  cash. 
The  real  interest  charge  in  this  case  is  $14.50.  The  rate 
of  interest  is  12  per  cent,  not  6.  This  dealer  estimates 
that,  on  an  average,  the  prices  are  enough  more  to  make 
the  real  interest  charge  12  per  cent.     This  is  in  a  region 


CAPITAL  297 

where  farm  mortgages  rarely  bring  as  much  as  6  per  cent. 
The  practice  of  the  dealers  is  justified  by  the  expense  of 
collection,  bad  debts,  and  by  the  fact  that  the  dealers  are 
forced  to  take  on  the  functions  of  a  bank,  a  business  for 
which  they  are  not  well  situated.  It  would  be  much 
better  if  we  had  means  of  securing  adequate  credit  directly, 
and  if  the  feed,  fertilizer,  machinery,  and  other  articles 
were  purchased  for  cash. 

Farmers  are  not  much  given  to  buying  on  the  installment 
plan.  This  is  even  a  worse  way  of  obtaining  credit.  The 
fact  that  there  are  many  collections  makes  it  necessary 
to  charge  a  still  higher  rate  of  interest.  Another  objection 
to  buying  on  the  installment  plan  is  that  it  is  usually  used 
as  a  bait  to  lead  persons  to  buy  things  that  they  cannot 
afford.  Houses  in  the  city  are  sometimes  bought  on  the 
installment  plan  to  good  advantage. 

189.  Farm  mortgages.  —  If  land  values  are  fairly 
stable,  it  is  usually  safe  to  mortgage  a  farm  for  half  its 
value,  provided  the  money  is  wisely  used  in  the  farm 
business.  If  crop  yields  are  uncertain,  the  danger  from  a 
heavy  mortgage  is  greater  than  where  yields  are  uniform. 

Farmers  often  come  to  look  upon  the  money  obtained 
by  a  mortgage  as  a  permanent  part  of  their  capital.  This 
is  a  dangerous  view  to  take.  One  may  sometimes  con- 
tinue to  renew  a  mortgage  from  time  to  time  to  good 
advantage,  but  this  money  must  never  be  looked  upon  as 
a  part  of  the  permanent  capital.  One  must  always  be  pre- 
pared in  advance  to  either  pay  or  renew  a  mortgage. 
The  agreement  for  renewal  ought  to  be  made  at  least  a 
year  before  a  mortgage  becomes  due,  so  that  there  will  be 
no  trouble.  It  must  be  remembered  that  while  money 
obtained  on  a  mortgage  greatly  increases  the  chances  of 
making  monej^  it  also  increases  the  chances  of  losing. 


298  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

190.  Keeping  one's  credit  good.  —  Since  few  farmers 
have  money  enough  to  conduct  their  business  to  good  ad- 
vantage, it  is  of  the  greatest  importance  that  the  credit  be 
kept  good.  Nothing  is  more  detrimental  to  one's  credit 
than  allowing  innumerable  little  bills  to  go  unpaid.  It 
is  much  better  to  borrow  enough  from  some  one  source,  or 
allow  one  large  bill  to  stand  than  it  is  to  allow  small  bills  to 
accumulate.  In  making  promises  to  pay,  one  should  be 
sure  that  he  does  not  promise  too  soon.  It  is  much  better 
to  make  the  promise  far  enough  away  so  that  one  may  do 
better,  rather  than  not  do  so  well,  as  he  agreed. 

Roberts  has  well  expressed  the  experience  of  the  farmer 
who  always  has  things  charged  in  his  "  Farmer's  Business 
Handbook." 

"  Most  sane  people  are  extremely  unhappy  when  their 
outgo  is  equal  to  or  exceeds  the  income.  Some  are  really 
unhappy  only  when  the  bills  come  in ;  while  others  live  in 
dread  of  petty  debts  scattered  they  know  not  where,  and 
in  amounts  which  have  been  forgotten,  not  knowing 
whence  the  next  dun  will  come  or  how  or  when  disgrace 
may  fall  upon  them.  How  often  I  have  seen  a  noble, 
industrious  farmer  marketing  his  chief  money  crop  of  the 
year,  the  wheat  or  the  wool,  or  the  fat  live  stock!  With 
what  honest  pride  he  laid  the  check  for  several  hundred 
dollars  on  the  bank  counter  and  then  stuffed  that '  wad  '  of 
bills  into  his  '  side  pocket!  '  Then  with  what  a  cheerful 
voice  he  asks  at  the  desk  of  the  grocer  for  the  amount 
of  his  account!  '  Fifty-six  dollars  and  seventy-two  cents,' 
the  clerk  responds.  '  There  must  be  some  mistake ;  it 
cannot  be  more  than  half  that.'  The  items  are  looked  up, 
the  charges  are  correct,  the  bill  is  paid!  In  a  voice  out  of 
which  some  of  the  courage  has  gone,  he  asks  for  his  account 
at  the  dry  goods  store.     This  is    nearly   one   hundred 


CAPITAL  299 

dollars.  He  disputes  the  account,  says  he  never  had  the 
goods,  there  is  some  mistake,  they  have  been  charging 
neighbors'  purchases  to  his  account;  he  takes  an  hour 
to  inspect  the  items,  pays  the  bill  under  protest,  and, 
concluding  that  he  has  had  enough  unhappiness  for  one 
day,  takes  something  to  drink  and  lets  the  half  dozen 
other  fellows  wait  for  their  pay.  For  it  will  be  some 
pleasure  to  carry  even  a  small  roll  of  bills  for  at  least  a  few 
days  in  the  year." 

The  progressive  farmer  keeps  his  money  in  a  bank 
and   pays   with   checks.     He   no   longer   carries   money 

Wili.iamsburg.Va.   iU^yCy.3  J    lOi^  ^o/fj-^ 

The  Peninsula  Bank 

Fig.  65.  —  A   properly   written   check.     The   statement   of   what   the 
money  was  paid  for  makes  a  receipt. 

about  with  him  or  hides  it  in  an  old  boot.  There  are 
many  advantages  of  using  checks.  One  very  important 
advantage  is  that  the  check  makes  a  receipt. 

191.  Agricultural  credit  as  a  public  question.  —  With 
the  revival  of  interest  in  agriculture,  the  fact  that  we  have 
no  adequate  system  of  agricultural  credit  is  attracting 
attention.  The  condition  is  certainly  a  very  serious 
one.  Farm  mortgages  are  made  for  too  short  a  time  when 
the  slowness  of  returns  from  some  of  the  best  farm  invest- 
ments is  considered.     It  takes  time  for  tile  drains  and  pure- 


300  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

bred  stock  to  pay.  Railroads  issue  bonds  to  run  many 
years,  but  the  farmer  in  America  has  no  means  of  obtaining 
ten-  and  twenty-year  loans.  The  rate  of  interest  on 
mortgages  in  some  regions  is  much  higher  than  it  would 
be  if  some  sort  of  cooperative  credit  associations  were 
formed.  An  even  more  serious  consideration  is  the 
problem  of  securing  credit  for  current  expenses  while  the 
crop  is  being  grown.  There  is  really  no  system  of  securing 
such  credit  for  American  farmers,  except  in  some  of  the 
highly  prosperous  regions. 

The  following  discussion  by  H.  C.  Price  in  the  Rural 
New  Yorker  of  Oct.  19,  1912,  presents  some  important 
phases  of  the  question. 

THE  BANKERS  AND  THE  FARMERS 

The  general  awakening  of  interest  in  the  necessity  of 
a  better  system  of  credit  for  American  agriculture  has 
started  the  bankers  studying  the  farmers'  business,  and 
it  behooves  the  farmers  in  turn  to  study  the  bankers' 
business,  and  especially  their  interest  in  the  establishment 
of  agricultural  credit  institutions. 

The  necessity  of  a  more  readily  available  capital  for 
carrying  on  the  farmers'  business  is  granted  by  every  one 
who  has  given  the  least  attention  to  the  matter.  But  how 
this  is  to  be  done  is  the  point  at  which  the  interests  of 
bankers  and  farmers  are  likely  to  conflict.  If  there  is 
money  to  loan  and  securities  to  sell,  the  banker  naturally 
wants  the  business,  and  he  wants  the  business  in  such 
shape  that  it  will  make  him  a  good  profit.  The  bankers' 
associations  have  taken  the  matter  of  agricultural  credits 
up  seriously,  and  have  investigated  the  European  systems ; 
their  periodicals  are  filled  with  articles  on  the  subject. 


CAPITAL  301 

It  has  become  so  much  a  Uve  issue  that  the  national 
pohtical  parties  have  included  it  in  their  platforms,  and 
without  doubt  something  will  be  done  in  the  near  future  to 
establish  either  public  or  private  institutions  from  which 
farmers  may  make  loans  on  favorable  terms. 

Unless  the  farmers  take  a  hand  in  this,  the  financial 
interests  of  our  country  are  likely  to  shape  such  institu- 
tions to  suit  their  interests  first  and  the  farmers'  interests 
second.  Already  there  are  suggestions  of  a  large  central 
land  bank  with  almost  unlimited  capital  for  financing 
farmers,  of  land  mortgage  associations  with  like  gigantic 
capital  to  handle  loans  on  farm  real  estate.  But  there  are 
some  fundamental  factors  concerned  in  the  matter  that 
must  be  observed  if  a  system  is  established  that  will  give 
the  relief  that  is  necessary  and  proves  the  success  that 
similar  institutions  have  proven  in  European  countries. 

First  :  Farmers  must  he  represented  in  its  manage- 
ment and  control.  The  German  agricultural  credit  or- 
ganizations, which  are  the  best  in  the  world,  are  managed 
by  farmers  and  for  farmers.  They  are  literally  a  union 
of  the  farmers  for  the  farmers  and  by  the  farmers.  Bankers 
and  financiers  can  cooperate  and  assist  such  organizations, 
but  they  cannot  do  for  the  farmers  what  they  must  do  for 
themselves. 

Second  :  Farmers'  credit  organizations  must  he  on  a 
limited  liahility.  basis.  For  that  reason  the  Raiffeissen 
system  which  is  so  widely  distributed  in  Europe  and  by 
many  advocated  for  introduction  in  America  is  not  appli- 
cable to  our  conditions,  because  the  one  thing  on  which 
Raiffeissen  built  his  association  was  the  unlimited  liability 
of  members.  It  was  literally  "  one  for  all  and  all  for  one." 
The  American  farmer  will  not  become  a  member  of  an 
association  by  which  he  makes  himself  liable  for  all  of 


302  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

his  property.  With  a  peasant  population  such  as  the  one 
near  where  Raiffeissen  founded  his  societies  it  made  httle 
difference  to  the  members  whether  they  pledged  them- 
selves for  all  their  property  or  not,  because  they  had  noth- 
ing to  lose  anyhow.  But  the  American  farmer  will  not 
and  should  not  willingly  risk  his  farm  and  all  he  has  by 
becoming  a  member  of  an  association  which  has  unlimited 
liability  of  its  members. 

Third  :  Farmers  do  not  want  any  subvention  or 
subsidy  from  the  Government.  France  has  established  her 
agricultural  credit  institution  on  the  basis  of  free  govern- 
ment loans  and  granted  legal  monopolies  the  privilege 
of  furnishing  real  and  personal  credit  to  farmers.  The 
farmers  of  America  have  no  need  of  free  loans  from  the 
Government;  all  that  they  need  is  to  sell  their  credit  for 
what  it  is  worth,  so  that  they  may  borrow  on  as  favorable 
terms  as  other  industries. 

Fourth  :  Agricultural  credit  organizations  should  be 
under  Government  supervision.  The  bankers  probably 
will  not  indorse  this  proposition  heartily.  But  if  the  in- 
terests of  the  farmers  are  to  be  protected  and  the  institu- 
tions are  to  be  of  undoubted  security,  they  must  be  under 
direct  Government  supervision.  The  success  of  the  Ger- 
man land  mortgage  association  has  been  due  to  the  fact 
that  it  has  been  under  direct  Government  supervision  and 
indirectly  Government  control. 

Fifth  :  The  credit  institution  that  serves  the  farmer 
must  be  close  at  hand.  Whether  it  is  a  bank,  a  land  mort- 
gage association,  or  wherever  the  farmer  gets  his  credit,  it 
needs  to  be  close  at  hand  where  he  can  go  personally  and 
make  his  arrangements.  For  this  reason  the  large  cen- 
tralized institution  located  in  the  cities  will  not  serve 
the  purpose.     The  farmer  needs  a  decentralized  system 


CAPITAL  803 

that  has  its  branches  in  every  township.  The  success  of 
the  European  rural  banks  is  due  to  the  fact  that  they 
are  estabhshcd  in  the  rural  communities  where  they  are 
convenient  for  the  farmers  and  they  conduct  their  business 
to  suit  the  convenience  of  the  farmers,  including  business 
hours. 

The  reason  the  present  situation  of  credit  and  banking 
facilities  for  the  American  farmer  is  so  unsatisfactory  is 
because  the  banking  business  has  been  developed  to  suit 
the  needs  of  the  city  and  not  the  country.  The  farmer  has 
been  left  to  adapt  himself  to  the  rules  and  regulations  of 
banks  conducted  for  city  customers.  And  now  the  banks 
are  awakening  to  the  fact  that  they  do  not  meet  the 
situation  as  far  as  the  farmer  is  concerned ;  moreover, 
that  the  farmers  are  threatening  to  take  over  their  own 
business  and  establish  their  own  financial  institutions 
along  lines  that  have  proved  successful  in  other  countries. 

The  farmers  and  bankers  may  well  confer  together  in 
this  matter,  and  the  bankers  in  their  deliberations  will  do 
well  to  call  upon  the  farmers  to  express  what  they  think 
could  and  should  be  done.  The  farmers  in  turn  can  well 
afford  to  consult  the  bankers  and  get  their  point  of  view. 
The  elimination  of  selfish  interests  and  the  promotion  of 
American  agriculture  should  be  the  goal  of  both  bankers 
and  farmers. 


WAYS   OF   FARMING   WITH    SMALL   CAPITAL 

192.  Ways  of  securing  capital.  —  One  of  the  easiest 
ways  of  securing  the  use  of  capital  is  to  be  a  tenant.  In 
1910,  sixty-four  per  cent  of  the  farmers  in  the  United 
States  rented  all  or  part  of  the  land  that  they  operated,  or 
secured  additional  money  by  means  of  mortgages.     It  is 


304 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


not  at  all  necessary  that  one  o^vn  all  the  property  that  he 
operates.  If  one  has  only  a  small  amount  of  money,  it  is 
usually  very  undesirable  to  try  to  farm  on  the  small  area 
that  this  money  will  buy. 

There  are  many  degrees  of  farming,  adapted  to  varying 
capital.  One  may  be  hired-man,  share  renter,  cash 
renter,  or  may  own  part  and  rent  part  of  the  land  operated, 
may  have  the  owned  land  mortgaged,  or  may  own  all  the 
land  free  from  debt.  Each  of  these  varying  degrees  of 
responsibility  requires  more  capital  than  the  preceding. 
Many  farmers  pass  through  each  of  the  stages  as  they 
secure  more  money. 

193.  Changes  from  hired-man  to  tenant  and  owner. — 
There  is  no  permanent  class  of  tenants  or  hired-men  in 
America.  Most  of  the  hired-men  on  farms  are  the  sons  of 
farmers.  They  are  usually  young  men  who  are  getting 
a  little  money  ahead  in  order  that  they  may  become 
tenants. 

The  classification  by  ages  of  the  males  engaged  in  agricul- 
ture in  1900  is  given  in  Table  64.  Seventeen  per  cent  of 
the  persons  who  owned  their  farms  were  less  than  35  years 
old,  but  43  per  cent  of  the  tenants  and  89  per  cent  of  the 


Table  64. — Males    Engaged    in   Agriculture    in    1900    by 
Age  Groups  ^ 


Ages 


Owners 


Tenants 


Others 


10-24  years 
25-34  years 
35-44  years 
45-;>4  years 
55-64  years 
65  and  over 


2% 
15 
25 
25 
19 
14 


10% 
33 
25 
19 

9 

4 


71% 
18 

6 

3 

1 

1 


»  Twelfth  Census,  Vol.  V,  p.  Ixxx. 


CAPITAL 


305 


other  workers  were  less  than  35  years  old.  Only  5  per 
cent  of  the  laborers  and  32  per  cent  of  the  tenants  were 
over  45  years  old,  but  58  per  cent  of  the  owners  had 
reached  this  age. 

The  proportion  of  tenants  in  the  United  States  is 
rapidly  increasing,  but  this  increase  seems  to  be  in  pro- 
portion to  the  decrease  in  other  workers.  It  appears  that 
when  all  workers  are  considered,  the  proportion  of  owners 
is  practically  constant.  The  hired-men  are  decreasing  and 
the  tenants  increasing.  This  change  is  probably  due  to 
the  combination  of  machinery  and  higher  land  values. 

Table  65. — ^Percentage  of  Males  Engaged  in  Agricdlture 
AS  Owners,  Tenants,  and  Other  Workers  ' 


1880 

1890 

1900 

Owners 

Tenants 

Other  workers 

42.2 
14.5 
43.3 

42.0 
16.6 
41.4 

42.3 
23.1 
34.6 

1  Twelfth  Census,  Vol.  V,  p.  Ixxviii. 


194.  More  capital  necessary  than  formerly.  —  Much 
more  capital  is  now  required  than  formerly'  for  successful 
farming.  Land  costs  more.  More  and  better  machinery 
is  used,  and  this  calls  for  more  horses  and  more  acres  to 
keep  it  busy.  All  this  means  that  it  usually  takes  longer 
to  become  an  owner  than  formerly.  But  a  well-equipped, 
modern  farm  is  worth  time  and  effort. 

195.  First  secure  an  education.  —  The  young  man  who 
proposes  to  start  farming  should  first  get  an  education. 
Education  is  much  more  essential  in  farming  than  it  was 
25  years  ago.  It  will  certainly  be  more  essential  in  the 
future  than  it  is  to-day.     A  young  man  who  is  getting 


306 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


ready  to  start  farming  is  not  preparing  for  to-day  only ; 
he  is  preparing  for  forty  years  from  now. 

In  one  county  the  farmers  who  had  attended  high  school 
made  almost  twice  as  much  as  those  who  had  never  been 
beyond  the  district  school. 

Table  66.  —  Relation  of  Education  to  Labor  Income,  573 
Farms  ^ 


Education 

Number 
OF  Farmers 

Labor  Income 

Attended  district  school  .     .     . 
Attended  high  school  .... 
More  than  high  school     .     .     . 

398 

165 

10 

S318 
622 
847 

»  New  York,  Cornell  Bulletin  295,  p.  552. 

A  high  school  course  is  worth  more  than  an  investment 
of  $6000  in  five  per  cent  bonds.  We  do  not  have  figures 
for  a  large  number  of  college  men,  but  a  college  course 
seems  to  be  worth  as  much  more.  Time  spent  in  high 
school  seems  to  be  worth  about  $7  per  day  to  one  who  is 
to  be  a  farmer. 

Part  of  the  greater  labor  income  made  by  those  with 
more  education  is  due  to  the  large  capital  available 
because  of  previous  saving.  But  when  the  farms  in  this 
county  were  sorted  into  groups  with  equal  capital  at  the 
beginning  of  the  year,  the  farmers  with  more  than  a  district 
school  education  made  an  average  of  $211  more  during 
the  year  than  did  those  whose  education  stopped  in  the  dis- 
trict school. 

It  may  be  said  that  the  more  able  persons  are  the  ones 
who  went  to  high  school.  This  is  partly  true,  but  is  by 
no  means  universal.  Studies  in  this  county  showed  that 
accidents,  such  as  the  distance  to  school,  when  the  farmer 


CAPITAL  307 

was  a  boy,  were  very  decided  factors  in  determining  the 
amount  of  education. 

Of  course,  education  does  not  insure  success.  Some 
men  succeed  without  it,  and  some  fail  with  it,  but  the 
chances  of  success  are  much  better  with  a  good  education. 

Every  boy  who  proposes  to  farm  should  study  in  some 
agricultural  school.  He  should,  at  least,  take  a  three 
months'  winter-course,  if  he  cannot  take  a  longer  course. 

Any  one  can  check  these  ideas,  if  not  the  figures.  We 
hear  men  regretting  all  kinds  of  acts.  Those  who  have 
cows  are  sorry  that  they  did  not  plant  orchards.  Those 
who  have  orchards  wish  that  they  had  different  varieties. 
Those  who  went  West  wish  that  they  had  gone  South. 
But  whoever  heard  of  a  man  wishing  that  he  had  not  gone 
to  school  so  long  ?  Franklin  was  right  when  he  said  that 
an  investment  in  knowledge  pays  the  best  interest. 

196.  Starting  as  a  hired-man.  —  For  a  farm  boy  with- 
out an  agricultural  college  education,  the  best  way  to 
start  is  as  a  hired-man.  If  the  neighborhood  is  a  pros- 
perous one,  it  is  the  place  to  begin ;  if  not,  go  where  farmers 
are  prosperous.  By  working  from  two  to  five  years,  he 
may  save  enough  money  to  become  a  tenant.  If  he  has 
proved  himself  both  worthy  and  efficient,  he  will  have  no 
difficulty  in  renting  a  good  farm. 

In  whatever  position  one  is  working,  he  should  strive  to 
earn  at  least  twice  what  he  gets.  Men  do  not  buy  cowS; 
land,  or  labor  unless  they  expect  to  make  a  profit  on  it. 
If  one  gets  all  he  earns,  why  should  any  man  desire  to 
hire  him?  When  the  salary  is  raised,  it  is  not  because  the 
employer  thinks  that  the  increase  will  be  earned,  but 
because  it  has  been  earned.  This  holds  true  on  farms,  in 
shops,  in  universities,  everywhere ;  one  must  always  earn 
his  increase  in  pay  before  he  gets  it. 


308  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

No  matter  what  pay  one  gets,  part  of  it  should  be  saved. 
A  young  man  who  gets  $20  a  month  as  a  farm  hand  and 
who  cannot  save  part  of  it  is  not  hkely  to  save  if  he  gets 
$200  a  month.  The  writer  has  seen  many  just  such 
changes  in  salary  and  has  rarely  seen  a  person  who  could 
possibly  save  a  cent  on  $2400  a  year  who  had  not  been 
able  to  save  something  on  $20  a  month.  Saving  is  a 
habit.  It  is  independent  of  the  wages  received.  If  one 
has  the  "  spend-it-all  "  habit,  better  pay  will  make  no  dif- 
ference. If  he  has  the  saving  habit,  he  will  save  more  as 
the  pay  increases,  but  may  or  may  not  save  a  larger  per 
centage  of  the  pay. 

If  a  man  has  not  had  a  good  farm  experience  on  a  well- 
managed  farm,  he  should  find  one  of  the  most  successful 
farmers  in  a  region  where  farmers  are  prosperous  and  hire 
out  for  a  year  or  more. 

A  graduate  of  an  agricultural  college  who  has  grown  up 
on  a  farm  and  who  has  no  money  can  usually  start  best  by 
teaching,  in  experiment  station  work,  or  as  a  farm  manager. 
By  taking  the  best  position  available,  when  experience,  op- 
portunity, and  salary  are  all  considered,  he  should  be  able 
to  save  more  in  a  year  than  the  farm  hand  receives. 

A  position  that  calls  for  travel  and  study  on  farms  is 
very  desirable  for  one  or  two  years.  A  place  as  farm  man- 
ager on  a  real  farm  is  good  both  because  of  the  experience 
and  the  low  expenses.  Some  of  the  best  paying  positions 
are  as  managers  of  country  places.  The  experience  gained 
on  such  places  is  often  harmful.  If  any  ideas  are  gained, 
they  are  likely  to  be  extravagant  notions  that  are  adapted 
to  spending  money  —  not  to  making  money. 

The  college  graduate  usually  skips  the  tenant  stage. 
In  such  cases,  the  farm  should  be  bought  as  soon  as  one  has 
money  enough  to  secure  the  place  on  contract  or  by  part 


CAPITAL  309 

payment.  The  farm  is  then  rented  while  one  continues 
in  his  position.  In  this  way  a  farm  may  be  bought  long 
before  it  could  possibly  be  purchased  if  one  were  to  at- 
tempt to  equip  and  run  it.  The  salary  should  usually  pay 
the  interest  and  some  of  the  principal.  The  rent  may  be 
applied  on  the  principal.  Either  the  salary  or  rent  should 
pay  the  interest.  It  is  not  likely  that  both  will  fail  in  the 
same  year.  If  one  were  on  the  farm  and  had  a  crop  failure, 
he  might  lose  the  place.  When  the  farm  is  largely  paid 
for,  one  may  move  on  to  it.  This  is  the  plan  followed  by 
nearly  all  the  men  who  wish  to  farm  and  who  are  in  ex- 
periment station  and  government  work. 

One  great  advantage  of  buying  a  farm  as  soon  as  pos- 
sible is  that  it  ties  one  to  the  land.  A  salaried  position 
may  wean  one  away  from  the  farm.  The  farm  furnishes 
a  place  to  spend  vacations.  It  forces  one  to  economize 
in  his  youth.  There  is  a  general  tendency  for  land  values 
to  rise.  If  wisely  chosen,  the  rise  in  value  of  the  farm  may 
be  equal  to  the  interest. 

The  first  farm  purchased  need  not  be  the  one  on  which 
the  final  home  is  to  be  made.  If  it  is  a  good  investment, 
it  may  be  sold  and  a  larger  and  more  desirable  place  may 
be  purchased. 

In  choosing  a  farm,  productive  soil  is  the  first  considera- 
tion. It  rarely  pays  to  work  a  farm  that  is  not  located 
in  a  prosperous  community. 

197.  Starting  as  a  tenant.  —  A  young  man  who  has 
worked  hard  and  efficiently  and  has  made  a  reputation  for 
honesty  usually  finds  it  easy  to  rent  a  good  farm  as  soon 
as  he  has  saved  enough  money  to  start.  Part  of  the  pay 
for  being  a  good  "  hand  "  is  the  better  chance  that  is 
likely  to  come  as  a  tenant. 

Young  men  of  small  means  are  commonly  recommended 


310 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


to  use  small  farms  and  go  into  more  intensive  farming,  or 
buy  poor  land  that  is  cheap.  Neither  of  these  recommen- 
dations is  generally  applicable,  for  either  one  requires  about 
the  same  capital  as  the  usual  type  of  farming  in  order  to  be 
equally  profitable.  The  way  that  most  farmers  of  small 
means  get  started  is  by  being  tenants. 

In  Tompkins  County,  New  York,  the  average  tenant 
with  less  than  $3000  capital  made  a  larger  labor  income 
than  the  average  owner  with  less  than  $5000  capital.  The 
chances  of  making  a  large  labor  income  were  also  greater 
for  the  tenants.^ 

Table  67.  —  Relative  Opportunities  for  Men  with  Small 
Capital  as  Owners  and  as  Tenants,  Tompkins  County, 
New  York 


Capital 

Average  Labor 

Income,  Farms 

Operated  by 

Owners 

Per  Cent  Mak- 
ing Incomes  of 
over  $600 

$3000  or  less 

3001-4000    

4001-5000    

5001-6000    

Over  6000 

131  tenants  with  capital  of 
less  than  $3001,  averaging  $1 187 
made  an  average  labor  income 
of  $367,  and  15  per  cent  made 
over  $600. 

$225 
242 
339 
459 
673 

3% 
10 
15 
32 
45 

It  is  evident  that  the  opportunities  of  an  owner  in  this 
region  with  less  than  $5000  are  not  so  good  as  are  the  op- 
portunities of  a  tenant.  Very  few  men  in  this  region  re- 
main tenants  after  the  total  value  of  their  farm  property 
(capital)  is  over  $2000.     Apparently,  one  should  have  a 

1  New  York,  Cornell  Bulletin  295,  p.  537. 


CAPITAL 


311 


capital  of  at  least  $2500  and  be  able  to  secure  at  least  as 
much  more  on  credit  before  he  changes  from  tenant  to 
owner,  as  $5000  seems  to  be  the  least  capital  on  which  one 
is  likely  to  succeed  as  an  owner  unless  he  rents  additional 
land. 

If  a  tenant  is  on  a  good  farm,  it  will  usually  pay  to 
remain  there  until  he  has  a  chance  to  buy  a  good  place.  It 
is  better  to  rent  a  good  farm  than  to  own  a  poor  one.  Half 
of  the  crop  on  good  land  is  often  more  than  the  entire  crop 
on  poor  land. 

Similar  figures  for  another  county  are  given  in  Table  68. 
Tenants  with  less  than  $1000  were  doing  no  better  than 

Table  68.  —  Relative  Opportunities  with  a  Given  Capital 
AS  Owner,  Part-owner,  and  Tenant,  Northern  Living- 
ston County,  New  York 


Capital  of 
Operator 


$1,000  or  less 

1,001-2,000 

2,001-3,000 

3,001-4,000 

4,(X)1 -5,000 

5,001-7,500 

7,501-10,000 

10,001-15,000 

15,001-20,000 

Over  2,0000 


Owners 

Operat- 

OWNEW 

Rent- 

iNG  Their   Own 

ING    Additional 

Land  Only 

Land 

Num- 

Averacce 

Num- 

Average 

ber  of 

Labor 

ber  of 

Labor 

Farms 

Income 

Farms 

Income 

0 

0 



3 

$38 

0 

10 

81 

8 

$145 

16 

195 

9 

462 

23 

347 

7 

570 

46 

355 

14 

485 

62 

400 

19 

583 

75 

694 

19 

705 

28 

935 

3 

1018 

29 

1412 

3 

2269 

Tenants 


Number  of 
Farms 


20 
65 
54 
27 
16 

More 
than     ^22 
$5000 


Average 

Labor 

Income 


481 
610 
626 
869 


1282 


hired-men.     In  this  region,  a  tenant  with  this  capital  is 
not  prepared  to  work  a  good  sized  farm  effectively. 

In  some  parts  of  the  United  States  it  may  pay  a  man  to 


312  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

change  from  hired-man  to  tenant  with  less  than  this  capi- 
tal, but  in  most  of  the  live-stock  and  grain  and  hay  regions, 
one  needs  $1500  to  $2000  worth  of  stock  and  equipment 
before  he  is  ready  to  start.  Part  of  this  capital  may  be 
borrowed. 

It  will  be  seen  that  with  any  given  capital,  the  tenants 
are  making  more  money  than  the  owners.  Apparently, 
one  should  have  about  $5000  worth  of  property,  or  be 
able  to  borrow  enough  to  make  up  this  amount,  before 
he  should  change  from  tenant  to  owner  in  this  region. 
He  ought  then  to  rent  additional  land  if  it  can  be  secured 
conveniently.  If  land  values  are  likely  to  rise,  the  prob- 
lem is  more  complicated. 

The  larger  profits  on  tenant  farms  are  not  due  to  any  ad- 
vantage of  tenancy  over  ownership,  except  in  the  question 
of  capital.  Renting  is  one  means  of  getting  the  necessary 
capital  for  efficient  work.  Few  owners  have  enough 
capital  to  farm  to  the  best  advantage.  If  the  tenants 
owned  the  farms  that  they  rent,  their  labor  incomes  would 
be  larger.  A  tenant  with  $3000  in  this  region  can  run  a 
business  with  a  total  capital  of  about  $15,000.  With  this, 
he  is  able  to  do  much  better  than  he  could  do  if  he  tried 
to  make  his  little  money  furnish  land  as  well  as  stock  and 
equipment.  It  is  much  pleasanter  to  own  one's  farm  and 
have  no  interference  from  a  landlord,  and  to  have  a  home 
of  one's  own,  but  in  many  cases  the  farmer  loses  too  much 
to  gain  these  pleasures  if  he  changes  to  an  owner  before 
he  has  money  enough. 

198.  Effect  of  rising  land  values  on  buying  land.  — 
In  the  above  discussions,  no  attention  is  given  to  rising 
land  values.  If  land  is  likely  to  rise,  it  will  pay  a  tenant 
to  buy  a  farm  much  sooner  than  would  otherwise  be  desir- 
able.   The  rise  in  land  value  is  sometimes  more  than  the 


CAPITAL  313 

rent  or  interest  paid.  This  is  one  of  the  reasons  why- 
tenants  change  to  owners  when  they  do  not  have  money 
enough  to  farm  to  the  best  advantage.  The  loss  from 
farming  with  too  little  capital  must  be  balanced  against 
probable  rises  in  value  of  land  in  order  to  tell  just  when  to 
change  from  tenant  to  owner. 

The  time  to  take  risks  is  when  one  is  young  enough  to 
start  over  if  he  loses  by  the  venture.  A  young  man  may 
buy  a  farm  when  it  would  not  be  wise  for  an  older  person 
with  the  same  amount  of  money  to  do  so.  Of  course  no  one 
should  buy  a  farm  unless  he  has  a  reasonable  chance  of 
paying  for  it. 

199.  Cash  and  share  rental.  —  When  the  landlord 
takes  part  of  the  risk,  particularly  if  he  owns  any  of  the 
stock,  he  has  to  give  the  place  considerable  attention.  He 
must  be  paid  for  his  risk  of  crop  failure,  risk  of  a  poor  ten- 
ant, and  for  his  oversight.  For  these  reasons,  share  rent 
has  to  be  higher  than  cash  rent.  It  usually  pays  the  tenant 
to  rent  for  cash  and  s©  assume  these  risks.  The  risk  of  a 
poor  tenant  and  the  cost  of  oversight  can  then  be  elim- 
inated, so  that  the  pay  for  these  is  added  to  the  tenant's 
profit.  Even  the  risk  of  crop  failure  due  to  weather  is 
sometimes  slightly  reduced  when  one  owns  all  the  crop. 

Table  69  shows  the  results  for  two  counties.  Tenants 
who  share  the  crops  have  a  little  less  capital  and  make  less 
than  those  who  share  the  animal  products.  Those  who 
rent  for  cash  have  more  capital  and  assume  more  risk,  but 
get  much  more  for  their  labor.  Landlords  who  share  the 
crops  or  animals  have  more  risk  and  get  a  higher  interest 
on  investment,  but  much  of  this  higher  return  is  pay  for 
the  extra  oversight. 

200.  Farming  as  a  part-owner.  —  The  opportunities 
of  farming  as  a  part-owner  seem  to  have  escaped  public 


314 


FABM  MANAGEMENT 


notice,  but  have  not  escaped  the  attention  of  farmers. 
The  number  of  farmers  who  own  as  much  land  as  their 
money  will  allow,  and  who  rent  additional  land,  is  rapidly 
increasing.  The  number  increased  about  a  third  from  1900 
to  1910.     There  are  now  over  half  a  million  such  farms  in 

Table  69.  —  Tenant's  Capital  and  Labor  Income  with  Cash 
AND  Share  Rent  ^ 


Cash  Rent 

Share  of 
Receipts 

Share  op 
Crops 

Tompkins  County 

Number  of  farms  .... 

29 

109 

6 

Tenant's  capital    .... 

$1584 

$1264 

1177 

Tenant's  labor  income    .     . 

604 

342 

467 

Landlord's  per  cent   .     .     . 

5.2 

9.0 

12.4 

Livingston  County 

Number  of  farms  .... 

91 

80 

33 

Average  acres  per  farm  .     . 

207 

181 

152 

Tenant's  capital    .... 

$3781 

$2168 

$1736 

Tenant's  labor  income    . 

870 

502 

372 

Landlord's  per  cent   .     .     . 

5.5 

8.2 

8.3 

1  New  York,  Cornell  Bulletin  295,  p.  541. 


the  United  States.  Nearly  one-fifth  (18  per  cent)  of  the 
farmers  who  own  land  rent  additional  land. 

These  farmers  usually  have  less  capital  than  those  who 
do  not  rent  more  land.  Table  70  shows  that  in  two  coun- 
ties these  part-owners  had  less  land  than  owners,  yet  by 
renting  more  land  they  had  larger  farms  than  the  owners 
and  made  larger  labor  incomes. 

The  additional  acreage  is  usually  farmed  with  the  same 
horses,  machinery,  and  men  that  would  be  required  any- 
way. 

201.    Types  of  farming  with  small  capital.  —  Tables  17 


CAPITAL 


315 


Table  70.  —  Labor  Incomes  of  Owners  who  Rent  Additional 

Land  ^ 


Owners 

Owners  who  Rent 
Additional  Land 

Tompkins  County 

Acres  owned  .... 

105 

89 

Acres  rented  .... 

0 

51 

Total  acres  farmed 

105 

140 

Labor  income      .     .     . 

$407 

$522 

Livingston  County      .     . 

Acres  owned  .... 

126 

81 

Acres  rented  .... 

0 

57 

Total  acres  farmed 

126 

138 

Labor  income      .     .     . 

$575 

$609 

1  New  York,  Cornell  BuUetin  295,  p.  426. 

and  18,  page  94,  show  that  the  most  successful  types 
of  farming  with  small  capital  are  usually  those  that  sell 
a  large  amount  of  cash  crops. 

Long  time  investments  should  in  general  be  avoided  so 
long  as  one  is  heavily  in  debt.  Wood  lots,  orchards,  pure- 
bred stock  are  usually  best  added  after  one  has  at  least 
made  enough  so  that  he  can  be  fairly  sure  of  paying  for  his 
farm.  Buildings,  fences,  and  other  improvements  should 
be  made  with  great  caution  if  one  is  heavily  in  debt.  The 
best  way  to  pay  off  a  mortgage  is  usually  to  spend  most 
of  one's  energy  in  raising  all  the  crops  possible.  The  im- 
provements and  pure-bred  stock  may  be  excellent  things 
to  add  as  soon  as  one  is  able. 


LIFE   INSURANCE    FOR    FARMERS 

202.    Forms  of  life  insurance.  —  Nearly  every  one  should 
carry  life  insurance.     If  one  is  heavily  in  debt  and  has  any 


316  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

one  dependent  on  him,  he  should  be  sure  to  carry  enough 
insurance  to  protect  his  family  in  case  of  death.  There 
are  several  forms  of  life  insurance.  Some  of  the  more 
common  forms  are,  (1)  renewable  or  convertible  term,  (2) 
ordinary  life,  (3)  limited  payment  life,  and  (4)  endow- 
ment policies. 

(1)  The  renewable  term  is  the  cheapest  form  of  life 
insurance  for  a  short  time.  If  one  needs  more  insurance 
than  he  can  readily  pay  for,  it  is  a  good  form  to  take 
out  temporarily.  With  this  form  one  pays  a  certain 
premium  for  a  definite  number  of  years.  If  this  policy 
is  continued,  the  amount  to  pay  is  increased  from  time 
to  time.  During  the  time  that  the  policy  is  in  force  it 
may  be  changed  to  one  of  the  other  forms  by  paying  at 
the  proper  rate  for  the  age  at  that  time.  This  is  a  higher 
rate  than  would  have  been  charged  at  the  beginning,  be- 
cause one  is  then  older. 

(2)  The  ordinary  life  requires  the  same  payment  yearly 
so  long  as  one  lives,  But  the  dividends  allowed  by  most 
companies  act  to  reduce  the  amount  of  the  payment  year 
l)y  year  so  that  the  amount  usually  decreases.  This  is 
usually  the  best  form  of  insurance  for  one  who  has  a  good 
place  to  invest  money  safely  at  a  rate  of  interest  above 
3|  per  cent,  provided  he  has  the  strength  of  character  to 
save  money. 

(3)  The  twenty  payment  life  or  other  limited  payment 
policies  call  for  a  still  larger  premium.  One  pays  enough  to 
pay  the  yearly  premium  and  enough  more  to  be  put  at  3 
or  3^  per  cent  interest  so  that  by  the  end  of  the  twenty 
years  the  accumulated  excess  and  interest  on  it  will  pay  the 
future  premiums.  If  one  takes  out  an  ordinary  life  policy 
and  puts  the  difference  between  the  payments  on  this  and 
on  a  twenty  payment  policy  in  a  savings  bank  and  con- 


CAPITAL  317 

tinues  this  for  twenty  years,  the  amount  in  the  savings 
bank  at  3  or  3^  per  cent  will  pay  the  future  premiums. 

The  10,  20,  or  30  payment  policies  are  good  forms  for  one 
who  has  a  salaried  position.  He  can  then  get  his  insur- 
ance paid  for  before  he  is  too  old.  Usually  such  a  person 
does  not  have  a  good  safe  way  to  invest  money,  so  that  the 
low  rate  of  interest  is  all  right. 

(4)  Endowment  policies  include  still  more  of  the  invest- 
ment feature.  At  the  end  of  the  10,  20,  or  30  year  period 
the  policy  has  a  cash  value  as  great  as  the  amount  for  which 
one  is  insured.  With  a  twenty  year  endowment  policy 
for  $1000  one  pays  enough  to  carry  his  life  insurance  and 
invests  enough  more  so  that  at  the  end  of  twenty  years  the 
investment  is  worth  $1000. 

Since  most  insurance  companies  are  on  a  3  or  3^  per  cent 
basis,  it  is  evident  that  one  gets  a  low  rate  of  interest. 
But  many  persons  in  cities  are  not  able  to  secure  good  safe 
investments  for  small  sums.  Persons  on  a  salary  are  not 
likely  to  save  unless  they  have  obligations  coming  due. 
They  will  pay  the  premium  on  an  endowment  policy  when 
they  would  not  otherwise  save  the  money.  For  such 
persons  these  are  good  forms  of  policies. 

A  farmer  usually  has  plenty  of  ways  to  invest  money  at 
better  rates  of  interest.  His  investment  in  land  is  usu- 
ally a  safe  investment.  Few  farmers  have  enough  money 
to  properly  conduct  their  business.  Furthermore,  the 
farmer's  money  is  not  so  likely  to  be  wasted  on  trinkets  as 
is  the  money  of  the  salaried  man  in  town.  The  farmer  is 
much  more  likely  to  use  his  money  in  improving  his  farm 
or  his  stock  because  he  sees  so  many  things  that  he  would 
like  to  do.  In  short,  the  farmer  is  not  looking  for  3  per  cent 
investments.  If  he  has  nothing  else  to  do  with  his  money, 
he  can  pay  off  the  mortgage  that  is  perhaps  held  by  a  life 


318  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

insurance  company  at  5  per  cent.  There  is  not  much 
profit  in  investing  money  with  a  Ufe  insurance  company 
at  3  per  cent  and  borrowing  it  back  at  5  per  cent,  as  is  some- 
times done. 

The  best  form  of  Ufe  insurance  for  the  man  who  has  a 
good  safe  way  to  invest  money  is  the  ordinary  life  policy. 
One  may  then  expect  to  be  able  to  continue  to  pay  the  pre- 
miums after  the  twenty  years,  but  even  if  he  is  so  unfor- 
tunate that  he  has  to  stop  payment  the  policy  will  go  on 
at  about  half  its  face  value. 

203.  Typical  results  with  different  policies.  —  A  definite 
example  will  illustrate  the  merits  of  the  different  policies. 
The  following  are  the  rates  of  the  Connecticut  Mutual 
Insurance  Company  for  a  man  twenty-five  years  of 
age:  — 

A  ten-year  renewable  term  policy  for  $1000  costs  $14.93 
a  year.  After  the  first  year  the  dividends  reduce  the 
amount  to  be  paid  by  about  $1 .50.  At  any  time  during  the 
ten  years  the  policy  can  be  changed  to  some  other  form  of 
policy  by  making  proper  payments.  At  the  end  of  ten 
years  the  rate  is  raised.  This  policy  is  little  used.  It  is 
adapted  to  the  single  condition  where  one  needs  more  in- 
surance than  can  be  paid  for  in  another  form  of  policy  and 
expects  later  to  drop  it  or  to  have  more  money  so  that  it 
can  be  changed  to  another  form  of  policy. 

An  ordinary  life  policy  for  $1000  at  the  same  age,  25 
years,  costs  $20.14  a  year.  At  the  end  of  twenty  years 
such  a  policy  has  a  cash  surrender  value  of  $230.50,  or  if 
payment  of  premiums  is  stopped  there  is  a  paid  up  insur- 
ance value  of  $457  at  no  farther  cost.  The  amount  to  be 
paid  is  reduced  by  the  annual  dividends.  These  dividends 
reduced  the  actual  amount  paid  for  such  a  policy  taken  out 
twenty  years  ago  to  $315.44. 


CAPITAL 


319 


A  twenty  payment  life  policy  for  $1000  at  the  same  age 
costs  S29.98  a  year.  The  cash  surrender  value  of  such  a 
policy  at  the  end  of  twenty  years  is  $504.59.  At  the  end 
of  twenty  years  one  is  insured  for  life  for  $1000  without  any 
more  payments.  The  actual  amount  paid  or  cost  of  such 
a  policy  taken  out  twenty  years  ago  was  $478.93  above  the 
annual  dividends. 

A  twenty  year  endowment  policy  for  $1000  costs  $49.21 
a  year.  At  the  end  of  twenty  years  this  policy  has  a  cash 
value  of  $1000. 

The  ordinary  life  and  twenty  payment  life  are  the  most 
popular  policies.  Let  us  see  what  one  would  get  for  the 
same  yearly  payment  with  these  two  forms.  A  twenty 
payment  life  policy  for  $1000  at  25  years  of  age  costs 
$29.98.  This  same  annual  payment  would  pay  for  $1489 
of  ordinary  life  insurance.  The  comparisons  are  as 
follows :  — 


Twenty 
Payment  Life 


Ordinary  Life 


Premium  per  year 

Probable  total  cost  for  20  yrs. 
above  dividends  as  based  on 
experience  of  previous  20  yrs. 

Amount  of  the  Insurance  dur- 
ing the  20  yrs 

Paid  up  Insurance  at  the  end 
of  20  yrs 


$29.98 

478.93 
1000.00 
1000.00 


$29.98 

469.69 

1489.00 

680.00 


It  will  be  seen  that  the  same  payment  will  carry  nearly  a 
half  more  ordinary  insurance.  It  is  to  be  expected  that  a 
farmer  will  be  able  to  pay  the  premium  after  20  years,  and 
so  continue  the  larger  policy,  but  if  he  cannot  do  so,  he  will 
still  have  a  paid  up  policy  for  $680.00.     Having  settled 


B^O  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

the  amount  that  one  can  pay  annually  it  is  usually  better 
for  the  farmer  to  carry  a  half  more  ordinary  life  insurance 
rather  than  the  smaller  amount  of  twenty  payment  life 
that  the  same  cost  will  carry. 

The  best  form  of  policy  for  persons  on  a  salary  is  usually 
the  20  payment  life  or  other  limited  payment  policy,  but 
for  persons  in  as  conservative  a  business  as  farming,  who 
will  save  and'  invest  their  mOney,  it  appears  that  the  or- 
dinary life  policy  is  usually  best. 

References 

New  York,  Cornell  Bulletin  295. 

Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  L.  H.  Bailey, Vol.  I,  pp.  162- 

202,  Vol.  II,  pp.  483-485. 
Twelfth  Census,  Vol.  V,  Part  I,  pp.  11  to  lii,  Ivii-lix  and  Ixiv-lxvi. 


CHAPTER   10 
METHODS    OF    RENTING    LAND 

Methods  of  renting  land  are  becoming  of  increasing 
importance.  Thirty-seven  per  cent  of  the  farmers  in  the 
United  States  now  rent  all  the  land  that  they  operate 
and  9  per  cent  rent  part  of  the  land.  Renting  is  the 
common  means  by  which  the  young  man  gets  started  in 
farming.  It  is  the  usual  means  of  handling  land  when 
the  farmer  wishes  to  retire.  Most  of  the  rented  farms  in 
the  northern  part  of  the  United  States  are  owned  by  re- 
tired farmers  and  rented  by  younger  men. 

204.  Basis  of  rental.  —  The  profit  required  by  the 
landlord  is  in  proportion  to  his  risk  and  trouble.  Cash 
rent  requires  least  risk  and  is  the  cheapest  rent.  If  the 
landlord  receives  a  share  of  the  crops,  he  takes  a  risk  on 
weather  and  on  the  kind  of  farming  done  by  the  tenant. 
In  return,  he  requires  a  higher  rent.  If  the  landlord  fur- 
nishes part  of  the  machinery  and  stock,  his  risk  is  still 
greater.  He  has  risk  of  loss  by  natural  causes  and  because 
of  a  tenant's  carelessness.  Not  only  is  the  risk  greater, 
but  the  time  and  bother  in  looking  after  the  place  are  in- 
creased. The  rental  rates  become  still  higher.  If  the 
landlord  furnishes  everything,  and  even  trusts  the  tenant 
for  his  groceries,  as  is  the  system  with  many  negro  tenants, 
it  is  evident  that  the  risk  and  supervision  required  are  at 
their  maximum.  The  landlord  must  then  receive  a  very 
high  rental. 

Y  32X 


322 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


In  Tompkins  County,  New  York,  the  landlords  who 
rented  for  cash  made  an  average  of  5.2  per  cent.  Those 
who  owned  part  of  the  stock,  paid  part  of  the  expenses, 
and  received  half  of  the  receipts,  made  9  per  cent.  The 
tenants  who  rented  for  cash  made  an  average  of  $604  for 


Fig.  66.  —  One  of  the  troubles  of  a  tenant. 


their  labor.     Those  who  rented  for  a  share  made  an  average 
of  $342.     (See  Table  69,  page  314.) 

With  all  systems  where  the  landlord  shares  in  the  risk 
of  poor  crops,  he  also  has  a  risk  of  the  tenant  not  doing  his 
work  well.  This  risk  is  greatly  increased  when  the  land- 
lord shares  stock  and  part  of  the  expenses.  The  landlord 
must  be  paid  for  this  risk.  The  best  system  of  rental  for 
a  tenant  who  is  a  good  farmer  and  who  has  the  money,  is 
to  rent  for  cash.  He  assumes  all  the  risk  that  the  land- 
lord must  take  of  having  a  poor  tenant,  and  by  tending 
to  his  business  makes  this  much  more.     There  are  tenants 


METHODS   OF  RENTING  LAND  323 

who  are  better  ofif  if  watched,  either  because  of  careless- 
ness or  lack  of  knowledge.  Such  a  man  may  do  better 
if  he  rents  of  a  landlord  who  knows  how  to  farm  and 
who  will  give  considerable  time  in  looking  after  the 
place. 

The  landlord  who  does  not  desire  to  give  much  personal 
attention  to  the  farm  had  best  rent  for  cash  or  a  share  of 
the  crops.  If  the  landlord  has  time  and  desires  to  watch 
the  farm  rather  closely,  it  is  better  to  rent  for  a  share  of  the 
crops  or  for  a  share  of  all  receipts.  In  regions  where 
the  common  system  of  rental  is  a  share  of  receipts,  as  in 
some  dairy  sections,  land  is  not  so  attractive  an  investment 
for  persons  who  live  in  town  as  it  is  in  regions  where  the 
landlord  furnishes  nothing  but  the  land.  The  fact  that 
farm  investments  are  so  easily  looked  after  when  the  land- 
lord furnishes  nothing  but  land  is  one  reason  why  all 
classes  of  people  in  the  Middle  West  like  to  invest  money 
in  land.  This,  in  turn,  has  been  one  reason  for  the  very 
great  rise  in  prices  of  land  in  that  region. 

205.  Methods  of  share  renting.  —  There  are  three 
more  or  less  definite  systems  of  share  rental  with  all  de- 
grees of  variation.  1.  The  landlord  may  furnish  nothing 
but  land.  2.  He  may  furnish  part  of  the  productive  live- 
stock, part  of  the  feed,  seed,  and  fertilizer,  and  pay  part 
of  the  threshing,  silo  filling,  and  similar  bills.  3.  He  may 
furnish  everything  except  the  human  labor. 

Share  of  crops.  —  In  the  newer  regions,  where  the  chief 
product  sold  is  grain,  the  common  system  of  rental  is  for 
the  landlord  to  furnish  nothing  but  land.  The  tenant  de- 
livers the  landlord's  share  of  the  crop  to  the  railroad.  The 
tenant  usually  gets  about  three-fifths  of  the  grain.  He 
also  has  the  straw,  corn  stalks,  etc.,  for  use  on  the  farm. 
In  regions  where  the  land  is  very  rich,  the  rent  is  some- 


324  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

times  as  high  as  one-half.  In  regions  where  the  crops  are 
not  so  good,  the  tenant  gets  two-thirds  to  three-fourths 
of  the  crop,  and  on  land  that  is  very  uncertain,  he  some- 
times gets  even  more.  The  rent  also  varies  with  the  kind 
of  crops  grown.  If  there  is  any  considerable  area  of  sugar 
beets,  or  other  crops  requiring  much  labor,  the  tenant  gets 
a  larger  share.  Naturally  there  are  all  sorts  of  minor 
variations.  One  of  the  very  common  ones  is  to  require 
the  tenant  to  pay  cash  rent  for  pasture.  Sometimes  this 
is  placed  so  high  that  it  is  really  a  bonus  paid  to  get  the 
farm.  The  landlord  sometimes  pays  part  of  the  thresh- 
ing and  similar  bills. 

206.  Share  of  receipts.  —  In  dairy  regions,  and  gener- 
ally in  the  Eastern  States,  where  a  large  part  of  the  farm 
products  are  fed  to  live-stock,  the  usual  system  is  for  the 
landlord  to  pay  for  half  of  the  seed,  feed,  fertihzer,  thresh- 
ing bill,  silo  filling,  hay  pressing,  and  furnish  half  of  the 
stock,  except  horses,  and  get  half  of  the  receipts  from  all 
sources.  The  tenant  furnishes  horses,  machinery,  and  all 
labor.  If  no  cash  crops  are  grown,  this  system  is  unfair 
to  the  tenant,  because  he  furnishes  half  of  all  expenses  on 
stock,  except  buildings,  and  does  all  the  labor.  As  a  result, 
in  such  regions  the  landlord  is  often  forced  to  furnish  all 
the  cows  and  sometimes  part  of  the  horses  and  equipment 
in  order  to  get  a  tenant.  The  straight  half  and  half  is 
fair  when  the  tenant  sells  considerable  hay.  If  the  chief 
crop  sold  is  potatoes  or  some  other  crop  requiring  con- 
siderable labor,  the  system  again  needs  modifying.  The 
general  tendency  is  to  hold  too  close  to  the  half  and  half 
system.  As  a  result,  the  tenant  desires  to  sell  all  the  hay 
possible  and  the  landlord  desires  him  to  keep  many  cows 
and  raise  potatoes,  cabbage,  or  other  laborious  crops.  It 
is  fairer  and  results  in  better  profits  for  both  parties  if  the 


MET^Ot)S   dp  BEATING  LAND  325 

landlord  gets  a  larger  share  of  hay  sold  than  he  does  of 
potatoes  or  other  laborious  crop.^ 

All  sorts  of  variations  occur  as  a  result  of  bargaining. 
The  landlord  may  get  half  the  eggs.  The  tenant  may  get 
all  the  eggs  and  furnish  feed  for  hens,  or  he  may  get  per- 
mission to  keep  a  certain  number  of  hens  on  undivided 
feed.  On  109  farms  in  one  county  in  New  York,  there 
were  only  a  very  few  leases  that  were  exactly  alike,  yet  the 
general  principle  was  that  labor  of  men,  horses,  and  ma- 
chinery offset  land,  everything  else  being  divided  equally. 

In  sections  where  little  stock  is  kept,  the  tenant  some- 
times gets  permission  to  keep  a  little  stock  on  undivided 
feed. 

As  live-stock  increases  in  the  newer  regions,  the  tendency 
is  for  the  landlord  to  share  in  stock  or  rent  for  cash. 

207.  Everything  furnished  by  landlord.  —  The  com- 
mon system  of  rental  to  negroes  and  Mexicans  in  the 
Southern  States  is  for  the  landlord  to  furnish  everything 
and  get  one-third  or  half  the  cotton.  The  exact  share 
varies  according  to  the  soil  in  different  regions.  A  man 
who  rents  in  this  way  is  sometimes  called  a  "  share  hand." 
The  tenant  merely  does  the  work  with  the  landlord's 
mule  and  machinery.  Often  the  landlord  runs  a  store 
from  which  the  tenant  buys  his  food  and  clothing  on  time. 
The  limit  that  he  is  allowed  to  buy  is  determined  by  what 
the  landlord  thinks  the  tenant's  share  of  the  crop  is  likely 
to  be  worth.  By  this  system,  the  tenant  is  always  in  debt 
and  rarely  saves  anything.  Of  course,  there  are  excep- 
tions. An  increasing  number  of  negroes  are  furnishing 
their  mule  and  machinery  and  getting  a  larger  share  of 
the  crop,  but  the  majority  are  "  share  hands." 

208.  Systems  too  rigid.  —  Too  little  attention  is  given 

1  New  York,  Cornell  Bulletin  295,  p.  540. 


326  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

to  the  comparative  costs  of  different  crops  and  animals. 
If  the  general  system  is  for  the  landlord  to  get  a  certain 
share  of  the  crop  he  often  insists  on  having  the  same  share 
of  an  intensive  crop  like  potatoes  as  he  gets  of  a  hay  crop. 
The  result  is  that  the  tenants  try  to  reduce  the  area  of 
intensive  crops  when  a  fair  system  of  rental  might  make 
this  the  best  crop  for  both  parties.  If  every  farm  grew 
just  the  right  area  of  crops  of  each  kind,  the  differences  on 
different  crops  might  average  up  even.  But  with  a  rigid 
system  some  tenants  are  persuaded  to  grow  crops  on 
which  the  landlord  makes  a  big  profit  and  the  tenant 
makes  nothing.  Other  tenants  grow  crops  on  which  they 
make  more  than  their  fair  share  of  profit.  Such  cases  are 
exceedingly  frequent.  The  writer  knows  of  many  farms 
every  year  where  considerable  areas  of  such  crops  as  pota- 
toes, cucumbers,  and  cabbages  are  grown  for  half  when 
the  tenant  has  no  extensive  crops  to  balance  up  the 
system.  In  other  cases,  men  get  half  of  a  good  hay  crop 
for  cutting  when  they  do  not  raise  any  intensive  crops. 
In  1911,  one  of  the  very  successful  farmers  in  New  York 
rented  seven  acres  of  land  from  a  neighbor  for  growing 
potatoes.  The  usual  system  of  rental  is  a  half,  so  that 
neither  of  them  thought  of  any  other  basis.  The  tenant 
turned  over  $350  worth  of  potatoes  for  the  use  of  seven 
acres  of  land  when  the  land  was  not  worth  over  $500. 
The  landlord  made  about  70  per  cent  on  his  investment. 
The  farmer  made  very  little. 

In  Tompkins  county.  New  York,  about  three-fourths  of 
the  rented  farms  have  such  a  combination  of  crops  and 
stock  as  to  result  in  a  fair  division  of  the  profits.  But 
about  one-fourth  are  unfair  to  one  party  or  the  other. 
There  were  such  cases  as  a  tenant  making  a  labor  income 
of  $835  when  the  landlord  made  less  than  3  per  cent.     At 


METHODS   OF  RENTING   LAND  327 

the  other  extreme  a  landlord  made  over  20  per  cent  when 
the  tenant  made  a  labor  income  of  only  $142.  A  consid- 
erable number  of  landlords  made  over  10  per  cent  when 
the  tenants  made  less  than  hired-man's  wages.  Most  of 
these  were  cases  where  the  tenant  spent  most  of  his  time 
milking  cows  and  raising  potatoes  for  half. 

When  the  landlord  pays  for  half  the  feed  for  productive 
stock,  half  the  seed,  fertilizer,  etc.,  and  gets  half  the  re- 
ceipts, he  really  pays  for  part  of  the  labor  cost.  He 
furnishes  the  houses  and  half  the  milk  and  other  prod- 
ucts that  are  given  to  men.  He  furnishes  the  barn  for 
horses,  and  usually  furnishes  half  the  hay  that  horses 
eat,  so  that  he  pays  part  of  the  cost  of  horse  labor.  And 
since  he  furnishes  part  of  the  cost  of  man  labor,  he  really 
pays  for  part  of  the  time  that  men  spend  on  horses.  Part 
of  the  machinery  cost  falls  to  him  because  he  furnishes 
the  barns  to  house  machinery  and  part  of  the  man  and 
horse  labor  to  care  for  machinery. 

The  cost  of  hay  and  apples  for  the  farm  from  which 
accounts  are  given  on  pages  445  to  471  was  divided  as 
suggested  above.  By  the  usual  system  of  rental  in  this 
region  the  tenant  and  landlord  share  receipts  equally. 
But  the  hay  crop  would  cost  the  landlord  $220  more  than 
it  cost  the  tenant,  while  the  small  orchard  would  cost  the 
tenant  $60  more  than  it  cost  the  landlord. 

If  a  farm  is  mostly  devoted  to  hay,  the  tenant  has  the 
best  of  the  bargain.  If  it  is  mostly  devoted  to  cows  or 
intensive  crops,  the  landlord  has  the  best  of  it.  It  would 
be  bettor  if  we  had  a  more  flexible  system,  so  that  the  share 
would  vary  with  the  kind  of  crops  more  than  it  does. 

209.  Relation  of  systems  of  rental  to  profits.  —  The 
best  form  of  rental  for  a  tenant,  who  has  money  enough 
and  who  is  a  good  farmer,  is  cash  rent. 


328  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

What  is  best  for  the  landlord  depends  on  how  much  at- 
tention he  can  give  to  the  place  and  on  his  knowledge  of 
farming.  Share  rent  will  pay  him  better  if  he  has  the  time 
and  knowledge  necessary. 

The  form  that  is  best  for  keeping  up  the  farm  is  usually 
for  the  landlord  to  share  in  live-stock.  But  cash  rent,  or 
any  other  form  of  rental,  may  do  as  well  if  the  conditions 
are  so  made  that  live-stock  keeping  is  encouraged. 

It  is  often  best  to  have  the  tenant  pay  the  taxes.  This 
prevents  the  taxes  from  being  raised  too  high  because  the 
owner  is  not  present  to  protest. 

There  are  some  points  on  which  both  parties  gain.  For 
instance,  if  the  farm  is  large  enough  so  that  the  tenant  can 
get  the  most  out  of  his  horses  and  equipment,  he  can  afford 
to  pay  a  higher  rent  and  yet  make  more  for  himself. 
Tenant  farms  are  usually  larger  than  farms  operated  by 
owners.  The  system  of  rental  used  by  the  Wadsworths, 
who  own  large  tracts  of  land  in  western  New  York,  is 
successful  from  every  standpoint.  The  owners  get  a  fair 
rate  of  interest,  the  tenants  do  well,  and  the  soil  is  kept 
up.  The  secret  of  this  success  is  that  the  farms  are  large 
enough  so  that  the  tenants  can  do  the  work  economically. 
Most  of  the  farms  contain  200  to  300  acres.  The  leases 
also  favor  the  keeping  of  live-stock  by  charging  a  low  rental 
on  pasture  and  hay  land  and  require  that  the  hay  and  straw 
be  fed  on  the  farm. 

A  successful  system  in  Maryland,  described  in  Farmers' 
Bulletin  437,  accomplishes  the  same  results.  The  lease 
is  so  drawn  that  it  pays  the  tenant  to  keep  stock.  The 
farms  are  large  enough  so  that  the  tenant  may  make  a 
good  profit  for  himself  and  the  owner.  In  this  estate, 
there  are  twenty-one  farms.  The  smallest  farm  had  150 
acres  in  cultivation.     On  the  average,   there  were  269 


METHODS   OF  RENTING   LAND  329 

acres  of  cultivated  land  per  farm.  The  bulletin  states 
that  only  about  72  per  cent  of  each  farm  is  in  cultivation, 
so  that  the  total  area  is  considerably  larger. 

This  is  the  right  kind  of  economy  for  the  landlord.  He 
gives  the  tenant  land  enough  so  that  the  tenant  can  get  the 
most  out  of  his  horses  and  machinery.  In  this  way,  both 
parties  prosper.  If  the  farms  were  half  as  large,  the  waste 
of  horse  and  machine  time  would  ultimately  result  in  a  loss 
to  each  party.  In  many  cases,  it  would  pay  the  landlord 
to  combine  two  farms.  He  could  then  get  better  tenants 
and  make  more.  A  tenant  cannot  take  advantage  of  the 
gain  that  comes  from  driving  three-  and  four-horse  teams 
unless  he  has  about  100  to  200  acres  of  crops,  because  each 
horse  ought  to  raise  20  to  30  acres  of  crops. 

References 

A  System  of  Tenant  Farming  and  Its  Results,  Farmers'  Bulletin 
437. 

Methods  of  Renting  Farm  Lands  in  Wisconsin,  Wisconsin 
Bulletin  198. 

Relations  between  Landlords  and  Tenants,  Cyclopedia  of  Ameri- 
can Agriculture,  Vol.  IV,  pp.  180-185. 

Farm  Management,  F.  W.  Card,  pp.  48-55. 

Agricultural  Economics,  H.  C.  Taylor,  pp.  235-326. 

Principles  of  Rural  Economics,  T.  N.  Carver,  pp.  224-234. 


CHAPTER   11 
FARM   LABOR 

MAN  LABOR 

210.  Why  farm  labor  is  scarce.  —  There  are  several 
reasons  why  farm  labor  is  not  so  abundant  as  formerly :  — 

(1)  Perhaps  the  most  important  cause  is  education. 
Most  of  the  farm  work  is  and  always  has  been  done  by  the 
farm  family.  Formerly  the  children  began  farm  work  as 
soon  as  they  were  old  enough  and  continued  to  work  for 
the  family  until  21  years  of  age.  They  went  to  school  for 
a  few  months  in  the  winter.  To-day  most  of  the  farm 
children  remain  in  school  longer.  The  age  of  employ- 
ment has  been  raised.  The  children  probably  work  as 
much  when  not  in  school.  In  the  typical  agricultural 
state  of  Kansas,  one-third  of  the  population  is  in  school. 

(2)  The  farm  families  are  probably  smaller  than  for- 
merly. 

(3)  Women  are  doing  less  farm  work. 

(4)  Tenancy  is  increasing,  apparently  about  as  rapidly 
as  the  proportion  of  hired-men  decrease.  Farms  that  used 
to  be  large  enough  to  employ  a  hired-man  by  the  year 
do  not  require  two  men  all  the  year  when  more  horses  are 
driven  by  each  worker.  Many  men  who  might  be  hired- 
men,  therefore,  become  tenants. 

(5)  Until  1898,  farming  was  subject  to  frequent  and  dis- 
astrous overproduction,  so  that  farming  rarely  paid  well. 
At  the  same  time,  the  cities  were  prospering.     The  better 

330 


FARM  LABOR  33l 

opportunities  caused  a  stampede  of  3'oung  men  to  cities. 
As  in  most  cases  of  vioknt  readjustment,  the  pendulum 
went  a  little  too  far.     See  also  page  32. 

(6)  Foreign  immigrants  are  not  going  to  farms  so  much 
as  formerly,  because  our  methods  now  depend  on  machin- 
ery with  which  the  emigrant  from  European  farms  is  not 
generall}^  familiar.  The  hand  labor  types  of  farming,  like 
truck  growing,  are  getting  more  foreign  labor  than  ever 
before,  but  probably  95  per  cent  of  American  farming 
calls  for  machinery. 

211.  The  labor  problem  for  the  individual.  —  The 
average  farmer  makes  interest  on  his  money  and  wages 
for  the  work  he  does. 

The  labor  problem  is  not  to  be  solved  by  having  more 
laborers  or  cheaper  laborers,  but  by  directing  labor  better 
than  the  average  farmer  directs  it. 

The  individual  had  just  as  bad  a  labor  problem  when 
wages  were  $10  a  month  as  now  that  wages  are  $30. 
Whenever  it  becomes  easy  to  make  mone^^  out  of  labor 
by  average  methods,  hired-men  change  to  tenants  and 
effect  a  readjustment  of  wages.  The  problem  of  making 
money  out  of  hired  labor  can  never  change.  If  labor  is 
abundant  and  cheap,  it  is  because  the  average  profit  from 
using  it  is  low.  He  who  is  to  make  by  employing  labor 
must  direct  it  better  than  the  average.  Whenever  labor  is 
effective,  it  is  high  priced.  Wages  are  low  in  China  be- 
cause little  is  accomplished  in  a  day. 

The  individual  farmer  is  always  better  off  in  periods 
when  wages  are  high.  At  these  times,  the  problem  of 
making  money  out  of  hired  labor  is  the  same  as  it  always 
is,  but  much  of  the  farmer's  profits  are  on  the  labor  that 
he  and  his  family  do.  When  wages  are  high,  the  average 
returns  for  this  family  labor  are  good. 


332 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


The  one  way  to  solve  the  labor  problem  is  to  organize 
the  farm  business  so  well  that  the  labor  used  on  the  farm 
is  unusuall}'  effective.  In  other  words,  to  so  manage  the 
farm  work  that  a  given  amount  of  labor  accomplishes 
more  than  on  the  average  farm. 

212.  Using  labor  efficiently.  —  The  most  striking  dif- 
ferences in  the  effective  use  of  labor  are  due  to  size  of 


"1-  ■"* 


Fig.  67.  —  Saving  time  on  a  Virginia  farm. 


business.  Our  farms  are  not  yet  adjusted  to  our  ma- 
chinery. The  farm  that  has  the  proper  adjustment  has 
a  very  great  advantage  over  the  farm  that  is  too  small. 
(See  Chapters  7  and  8.)  The  type  of  farming  also 
limits  the  efficiency  in  use  of  labor,  as  discussed  in 
Chapter  3. 

The  farm  fields  have  not  yet  been  adjusted  to  meet  the 
conditions  called  for  with  modern  machinery.  The 
farmer  who  has  hii|  land  in  large  fields  has  a  great  ad  van- 


FARM  LABOR  333 

tage  over  the  farmor  who  has  small  fields.  The  layout  with 
respect  to  the  l)iiiklings  is  also  of  great  importance. 

Farm  buildings  and  water  supply  are  common  sources  of 
loss  of  time  and  money.  There  can  he  no  profit  on  time 
spent  in  doing  chores  in  an  unhandy  barn. 

Proper  intensity  of  culture  will  bring  highest  returns 
for  labor.  Too  much  or  too  little  work  on  crops  or  animals 
will  result  in  loss.  Too  much  work  will  cause  a  loss  just 
as  surely  as  too  little. 

One  of  the  easiest  ways  to  make  a  profit  on  hired  labor 
is  to  have  each  man  drive  more  horses.  Much  may  be 
saved  -by  hauling  large  loads  in  marketing  products. 
Three-horse  wagons  should  come  into  more  general  use. 

The  character  of  the  hired  labor  should  correspond  with 
the  work.  High-priced  labor  is  cheapest  for  exacting  work, 
but  low-priced  labor  is  cheapest  for  work  that  requires 
little  judgment.  Picking  up  potatoes,  picking  cotton, 
picking  fruit,  and  weeding  vegetables  are  kinds  of  work 
that  can  be  done  I)}'  cheap  labor.  Such  labor  is  often 
shipped  out  from  cities,  and  is  usually  paid  by  the  amount 
of  work  done, —  quart,  or  pound,  etc.  Figure  73  shows  a 
gang  of  Italians  picking  strawberries  in  New  Jersey.  Men, 
women,  and  children  all  work.  Ordinary  farm  help  is 
too  expensive  for  such  work. 

For  work  where  intelligence  is  required,  as  in  handling 
machinery  and  horses,  it  is  often  easier  to  make  a  profit  by 
pa^'ing  more  than  the  usual  wages.  One  man  may  be 
worth  twice  as  much  as  anothcT,  but  wages  are  not  so 
vaiiable.  By  paying  a  little  more,  one  can  often  get  very 
mucii  more  work  done.  But  m(>rely  paying  higher  wages 
does  not  bring  this  result.  One  must  be  a  good  enough 
judge  of  men  to  be  sure  that  he  is  getting  better  men 
when  he  pays  higher  wages. 


334  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

A  greater  use  of  telephones  and  mail  delivery  will  save 
much  time.  Parcels  post  will  save  many  trips  to  town 
for  small  repairs. 

If  work  is  done  at  the  proper  time,  it  may  result  in  great 
saving  of  labor.  This  is  particularly  true  in  the  control 
of  weeds.     The  chief  purpose  of  cultivation  is  to  control 


Fig.  68.  — Saving  time  on  a  Nebraska  farm,  the  regular  practice  in  most 
of  the  wheat  country.  One  man  to  a  team.  No  loader  or  driver  is 
necessary. 

weeds.  The  time  to  kill  weeds  is  when  they  are  just 
sprouting,  before  they  can  readily  be  seen.  If  one  uses 
a  weedcr  or  other  tool  that  will  cover  a  wide  area  at  fre- 
quent intervals  the  weeds  may  often  be  controlled  at  small 
cost.  A  proper  crop  rotation  will  go  far  in  reducing  the 
cost  of  weed  control.^ 

Every  farmer  should  carry  a  memorandum  book  and  keep 
a  list  of  work  to  do.  Weather  and  other  conditions' arc  so 
variable  that  one  may  need  to  change  work  at  a  moment's 
notice.  No  one  can  keep  in  mind  all  the  things  that  need 
to  be  done  about  a  farm.     A  rain  may  come  up  and  the 

*  The  Weed  Factor  in  the  Cultivation  of  Corn,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr., 
Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  Bulletin  257. 


FARM  LABOR  335 

men  stop  work.  A  few  days  later,  teams  may  be  kept 
out  of  the  fiekls  whik^  some  inside  work  is  done  that  might 
as  well  have  been  done  during  the  rain.  Extra  trips  are 
often  made  to  town  to  get  something  that  might  have  been 
gotten  before,  had  it  been  thought  of.  The  way  to  think 
of  it  is  to  always  carry  a  memorandum  of  work  to  be  done 
and  jot  down  things  whenever  they  are  thought  of. 

On  one  profitable  farm  where  such  a  memorandum  book 
has  been  kept  for  five  years,  there  has  never  been  any 
time  lost  on  account  of  weather  either  in  summer  or 
winter.     There  is  always  work  ahead  for  rainy  days  and 


Fig.  69.  —  Saving  time  in  a  New  York  timothy  field. 

for  cold  or  stormy  days  in  winter.  The  farm  employs 
four  men  most  of  the  time  and  sometimes  as  many  as 
seven.  The  winters  are  long  and  summer  rains  frequent, 
yet  by  always  keeping  a  memorandum  of  work,  there  is 
work  for  men  whenever  it  storms.  As  soon  as  the  storm 
is  over,  there  is  practically  always  work  for  horses  until 
the  ground  freezes.  Even  in  the  winter,  the  horses  work 
nearly  every  day  when  the  weather  is  good. 

The  following  lists  of  winter  and  stormy  day  work  show 
some  of  the  work  that  is  done  on  this  farm  in  advance  of 


336 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


Fig.  70.  —  Saving  time  in  u  Maine  potato  field. 

the  time  that  it  is  needed.  Much  of  this  work,  such  as 
cleaning  the  henhouse  and  barn,  oiling  carriages  and 
wagons,  setting  horses'  shoes,  and  sharpening  tools,  is 
kept  as  regular  rainy  day  chores. 


Fig.  71.  — The  low-down  potato  wagon  that  saves  labor.      See  Figure  70. 


FARM  LABOR  337 

213.  "Work  for  stormy  days.  —  The  following  list  of 
rainy  day  work  includes  a  few  of  the  things  done  on  the 
above  farm.  These  are  more  or  less  regular  things. 
Many  other  things  have  been  done  but  once  in  the  five 
years :  — 

Clean  barn. 

Sweep  down  cobwebs  in  barn  (4  times  a  year). 
Set  horses'  shoes. 

Get  machines  ready  to  use  (about  1  month  before  each  opera- 
tion starts,  so  as  to  have  time  to  make  repairs  if  necessary). 
Replace  broken  window  lights  in  buildings  (every  fall). 
Clean  oats,  wheat,  etc.,  with  fanning  mill  (long  before  needed). 
Clean  shop. 

Oil  wagons  and  carriages. 
Repair  machinery. 
Sharpen  all  tools. 
Clean  cellar  (twice  a  year). 
Mix  feed. 
Mix  fertilizer. 
Oil  harness. 

Sharpen  mower  sickles. 
Wash  and  pack  eggs. 
Clean  henhouse. 

214.  Winter  work.  —  Live-stock  demands  more  atten- 
tion in  winter,  so  that  by  combining  live-stock  with  crops, 
a  part  of  the  winter  work  problem  is  solved. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  kinds  of  work  that  are 
donein  winter  on  well-organized  farms.  Some  of  these,  as 
repairing  machinery,  are  universal ;  others,  as  work  in  the 
wood  lot,  apply  to  certain  regions  only  :  — 

Repair  each  piece  of  farm  machinery. 

IVIake  tools  and  do  other  carpenter  and  repair  work. 

Oil  and  repair  harness. 

Haul  manure. 

Sharpen  all  tools. 


338 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


Sharpen,  mower  sickles. 

Mix  fertilizer. 

Sharpen  posts  for  fence. 

Prune  orchard  and  other  trees. 

Clean  seed. 

Repair  buildings,  particularly  inside  work. 

If  the  farm  is  in  a  region  where  wood-lots  pay,  the 
work  in  the  woods  getting  out  posts  and  lumber  and  fuel 
will  provide  work  for  good  days. 

Such  crops  as  hay  and  grain  may  be  marketed  in  the 
winter. 

Near  cities,  some  of  the  teams  and  men  do  teaming  work 
in  winter ;  near  forests,  they  sometimes  do  lumbering. 


Fig.  72.  —  Home  mixing  of  fertilizers,  good  work  for  winter. 

If  one  keeps  a  memorandum  of  work,  there  will  always 
be   plent}^  to  do  on  a  div(^rsified  farm.     The  winter  is  also 


FARM  LABOR  339 

the  time  for  the  farmer  to  take  his  vacation.  Some  of  the 
time  should  be  spent  in  going  to  meetings  and  in  reading 
and  study. 

Considerable  is  said  about  having  the  farmer  manufac- 
ture articles  for  sale  during  the  winter.  A  few  farmers  do 
this  kind  of  work.  It  usually  pays  better  to  do  work  on 
the  farm  that  prepares  for  the  next  season  rather  than  try 
to  do  manufacturing.  On  a  diversified  farm  it  is  usually 
possible  to  find  work  enough  for  every  day  in  the  year. 
Manufacturing  enterprises  would  not  usually  provide 
work  for  horses,  and  idle  horses  are  as  serious  a  problem 
as  idle  men.  Furthermore,  any  manufacturing  enterprise 
requires  equipment.  This  equipment  must  be  idle  when 
farm  work  is  being  done. 

215.  Hours  of  labor.  —  The  eight-hour  day  is  coming 
to  be  the  ideal  in  cities,  although  the  vast  majority  of 
workers  still  work  more  than  eight  hours,  and  thousands 
work  twelve  hours. 

The  day's  work  on  the  farm  is  usually  longer  than  in 
cities.  There  are  very  good  reasons  why  it  should  con- 
tinue to  be  a  longer  day.  Farm  work  is  so  varied  that  it 
is  not  so  monotonous  as  most  kinds  of  city  work.  A  man 
on  a  farm  usually  takes  care  of  live-stock  before  breakfast. 
After  breakfast,  he  may  get  his  team  out  for  field  work.  At 
noon,  he  again  does  chores,  and  usually  has  a  warm  dinner 
at  a  table  rather  than  a  cold  one  from  a  dinner  pail.  Some 
chores  are  usually  done  after  supper.  During  the  day,  a 
great  variety  of  things  may  be  done,  bringing  into  play 
many  different  muscles  rather  than  using  the  same  ones  all 
day.  The  city  worker  often  has  a  half  hour  to  an  hour  to 
ride  or  walk  night  and  morning  to  go  to  his  work,  so  that  an 
eight-hour  day  may  be  as  long  as  a  ten-hour  day  on  the  farm. 
When  the  farmer's  day  ends,  he  is  usually  at  his  home. 


340  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

Some  farmers  say  that  they  work  16  hours  a  day,  when 
they  mean  that  they  are  out  of  bed  16  hours.  They  fail 
to  distinguish  between  work  and  meal  time,  but  there  are 
some  farmers  who  do  work  as  much  as  14  hours  a  day  in 
the  summer. 

On  a  number  of  farms  in  Minnesota,  it  was  found  that 
the  average  in  a  region  where  considerable  dairying  was 
done  was  8.6  hours,  and  in  a  region  largely  devoted  to 
grain  farming,  7.4  hours.  The  corresponding  hours  of 
Sunday  work  were  3.4  and  2.2  hours.^  The  averages  were 
for  313  days.  If  holidays  and  other  days  off  were  counted 
out,  the  average  would  be  higher.  These  averages  do  not 
give  all  the  facts.  The  days  in  summer  were  long,  and  on 
many  days  in  winter  very  little  was  done. 

Another  side  of  the  question  is  the  necessity  of  caring 
for  live-stock.  Stock  requires  attention  early  in  the 
morning  and  again  at  night.  A  ten-  or  eleven-hour  day 
is  long  enough  to  give  this  attention. 

A  ten-hour  day  of  actual  work  is  long  enough  for  a 
farmer  except  in  harvest,  threshing,  and  other  times 
of  unusual  pressure.  Of  course,  no  set  time  can  be 
made  on  a  farm,  because  the  weather,  the  stock,  or  other 
circumstances  may  make  it  necessary  to  work  very  long 
days  at  any  time.  The  farm  crops  and  property  must  be 
cared  for.  But  for  normal  occasions,  when  there  is  no 
great  pressure  of  work,  ten  hours  is  a  good  standard  to  set. 
When  dealing  with  ignorant  labor,  as  the  negro  or  Mexi- 
can, the  common  rule  is  to  work  from  sun  to  sun.  This  is  a 
natural  day,  particularly  where  men  do  not  carry  watches. 

216.  Management  of  men.  — •  The  most  satisfactory 
farm  hand  is  the  son  of  a  neighboring  farmer.  Such  men 
know  how  to  work  and  are  more  likely  to  be  interested,  as 

1  Minnesota,  Bulletin  97,  p.  11. 


FARM  LABOR  341 

they  usually  plan  to  farm  for  themselves  later.  Most  of 
the  farm  labor  is  from  this  source.  Estimates  by  farmers 
scattered  all  over  the  United  States  indicate  that  70  to  80 
per  cent  of  the  farm  laborers  and  tenants  find  it  reasonably 
possible  to  acquire  farms  of  their  own.^ 

This  class  of  help  should  be  treated  as  the  equal  of  the 
farmer  in  every  way.  The  almost  universal  custom  is  for 
the  farm  family  to  take  such  men  into  the  family  circle  as 
members  of  the  family.  Usually  it  pays  to  discuss  plans 
for  work  with  such  a  young  man.  In  this  way,  his  interest 
will  be  held.  Very  frequently  such  a  man  will  take  as 
keen  an  interest  in  the  farm  as  does  the  owner,  provided 
the  owner  discusses  plans  with  him. 

Men  of  this  kind  do  not  need  to  be  worked  in  gangs. 
In  fact,  it  is  usually  desirable  to  scatter  men  so  that  if  a 
breakdown  or  delay  occurs,  few  men  will  be  stopped. 

Another  kind  of  hired  help  is  the  less  reliable  kind  that 
gets  drunk  whenever  occasion  arises.  The  farmer  can 
sometimes  help  to  hold  such  a  man  on  the  farm  by  pro- 
viding reading  matter  or  something  else  to  hold  the  interest. 
Sometimes  the  best  thing  to  do  is  to  discharge  him. 

The  best  men  usually  hire  by  the  year.  They  do  not 
want  to  spend  the  winter  loafing.  It  follows  that  one  must 
so  organize  his  farm  as  to  provide  a  full  year's  work  if  he 
is  to  secure  his  choice  of  men. 

In  the  Eastern  States,  married  men  are  more  frequently 
employed.  Probably  this  is  because  there  are  more 
houses  on  the  farms  than  are  needed.  In  many  cases  in 
other  sections,  it  will  pay  to  build  a  house,  if  good  married 
men  can  be  secured  regularly.  When  the  house  and  all 
other  items  are  counted,  married  men  usually  cost  more 
than  single  men,  but  are  often  more  reliable. 

1  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Yearbook,  1910,  p.  199. 


342  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

The  pay  should  vary  with  the  season  of  the  year.  If  a 
month  hand  receives  the  same  pay  the  year  around,  the 
owner  will  feel  that  he  is  getting  too  much  in  winter ;  and 
in  harvest,  when  day  hands  are  getting  big  wages,  the 
month  man  will  feel  that  he  is  working  for  nothing.  By 
varying  the  pay,  the  year's  total  may  be  the  same,  but 
both  farmer  and  laborer  will  be  better  satisfied. 

When  dealing  with  Mexicans,  negroes,  or  Indians,  the 
pro])lem  is  entirely  different.  All  contracts  should  then 
be  simple.  Men  must  be  treated  fairly,  but  with  great 
firmness. 

These  men  do  not  often  desire  to  work  as  regularly  as 
does  a  man  who  hopes  to  own  a  farm  as  soon  as  possible. 
Usually  the  negro  saves  little.  A  good  way  to  hire  such 
labor  is  to  furnish  a  house  and  about  an  acre  of  land  which 
the  man  can  work  for  himself  with  the  agreement  that  he  is 
to  work  for  the  farmer  at  a  certain  wage  per  day  whenever 
he  is  needed.  Instead  of  providing  rainy  day  work,  as  is 
done  with  men  who  want  to  earn  money  every  day,  such 
a  man  works  only  on  days  when  he  is  needed.  He  takes 
his  much  desired  vacation  on  days  when  there  is  no  work. 
Usually  he  will  take  time  off  anyway,  and  he  may  as  well 
do  it  when  there  is  no  work. 

217.  Profit  sharing.  —  Schemes  for  profit  sharing  have 
been  worked  out  for  some  railroads  and  factories.  Farm- 
ing also  has  its  method  of  profit  sharing.  It  is  by  renting 
farms.  Some  persons  have  thought  that  the  farm  laborer 
might  share  in  the  profits  on  a  farm,  but  the  first  problem 
is  to  know  what  the  profits  are.  It  is  hard  enough  to  an- 
swer this  question  when  one  is  disinterested.  It  becomes 
practically  impossible  when  two  parties  are  interested. 
The  writer  has  known  of  many  attempts  to  share  profits, 
but  has  seen  very  few  satisfactory  results.     A  share  of 


FARM  LABOR 


343 


the  receipts  or  other  definite  rental  system  is  usually  the 
only  satisfactory  profit-sharing  plan. 

218.  Farm  managers.  —  On  nearly  all  farms  in 
America,  the  one  who  directs  the  work  does  as  much  labor 
as  any  of  the  men.  The  owner  or  manager  usually  works 
with  his  men,  unless  there  are  10  to  20  men  employed. 
When  only  3  or  4  men  are  working,  the  cost  of  supervision 


lg4| 

'^li^^l 

Fig.  73.  —  Enough  workers  to  justify  tho  farmer  in  spending  most  of  his 
time  directing  the  work.  The  farmer  raised  the  crop  with  his  own  work. 
He  becomes  a  non-worker  in  the  picking  season  only. 


is  altogether  too  heavy  if  the  manager  does  nothing  but 
direct  work.  No  industry  that  does  not  have  a  monopoly 
can  afford  a  no n- working  manager  for  so  few  men.  The 
man  who  works  with  his  men  usually  gets  them  to  take  an 
interest  in  the  work  and  to  accomplish  much  more. 

Business  men  who  own  farms  often  make  mistakes  in 
this  matter.  They  often  employ  farm  managers  who  feel 
too  important  to  work.  But  what  else  is  a  farm  manager 
to  do,  if  he  has  only  two  or  three  men  to  direct?  With  so 
few  men,  he  should  be  the  best  worker  of  the  lot.  Sup- 
pose that  the  manager  is  paid  $1000  a  year,  as  is  frequently 


344  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

the  case  on  farms  owned  by  city  business  men.  If  he 
directs  three  men,  the  expense  of  supervision  is  about 
as  much  as  the  wages  paid  the  men.  If  the  farm  raises 
only  150  acres  of  crops,  the  cost  of  supervision  will  be 
over  $6  per  acre,  or  more  than  the  rent  on  $100  land. 

The  Taft  ranch  in  Texas  is  an  example  of  a  well-organ- 
ized large  business.  Here  a  foreman  has  charge  of  1200 
to  1800  acres  of  crops.  He  directs  25  to  35  men  and 
about  60  mules.  They  raise  50  acres  of  crops  per  man 
and  25  acres  per  mule.  Cotton  is  the  chief  crop.  Other 
help  is,  of  course,  required  to  pick  the  crop.  The  cost 
of  the  foreman  here  is  about  50  cents  for  an  acre  of  crops. 
The  supervision  of  the  entire  ranch  may  add  25  cents  to 
this. 

Many  farmers  in  the  South  are  losing  by  having  too 
great  an  expense  of  supervision.  Before  the  War,  one 
manager  directed  many  slaves.  To-day  there  are  many 
cases  where  one  man  directs  only  a  very  few  workers  and 
yet  does  no  work  himself.  This  makes  the  cost  of  super- 
vision too  great.  Either  the  number  of  workers  directed 
should  be  increased,  or  the  manager  should  go  to  work. 
The  only  other  alternative  is  that  the  workers  and  manager 
all  remain  poor,  because  they  are  following  such  a  bad 
system. 

HORSE    LABOR 

219.  Cost  of  horse  labor.  —  The  economical  use  of 
horse  labor  is  as  important  as  man  labor.  In  Minnesota, 
in  1907,  the  cost  of  an  hour's  work  of  a  team  in  different 
counties  varied  from  15  to  22  cents  per  hour.  (Table  71.) 
In  the  same  region,  the  cost  of  man  labor  averaged  about 
12  cents.  The  time  of  the  team  is,  therefore,  worth  much 
more  than  the  time  of  the  driver.     Where  feed  is  worth 


FARM  LABOR 


345 


more,  the  difference  is  still  greater.  Table  71  gives  the 
results  for  a  number  of  farms  in  three  counties  in  Minne- 
sota and  for  three  very  successful  farms  in  New  York. 

There  are  few,  if  any,  regions  in  the  United  States  where 
horse  labor  is  cheaper  than  in  Norman  County,  Minnesota. 
The  chief  reason  for  the  higher  cost  in  the  other  counties 
and  in  New  York  is  the  higher  prices  of  feed.     The  other 

Table  71.  —  Cost  of  Horse  Labors 


Food  Cost 

Total 

Hours 

Cost  per 
Hour 

Year 

PER 

Cost  per 

Worked 

Horse 

Horse 

PER  Day 

Norman 

Co., 

Minn. 

1907 

$47 

S77 

3.0 

7.7 

Lyon 

Co., 

Minn. 

1907 

64 

93 

3.4 

9.0 

Rice 

Co., 

Minn. 

1907 

75 

104 

3.1 

11.0 

Farm   1, 

New 

York 

1911 

92 

131 

2.9 

14.9 

Farm  2, 

New 

York 

1911 

90 

174 

3.8 

14.8 

Farm  3, 

New 

York 

1911 

117 

177 

4.9 

13.1 

1  Minnesota,  Bulletin  117,  pp.  15,  16. 

costs  were  about  $30  per  horse  in  each  of  the  regions  in 
Minnesota.  Farmer  No.  2  in  New  York  had  a  very  high 
cost  of  depreciation  by  death  of  two  horses.  On  the  New 
York  farms,  the  man  labor  cost  12,  19,  and  22  cents  per 
hour.  The  19  cents  is  more  typical.  Farmer  No.  1  hired 
only  one  person,  a  half-witted  boy.  This  reduced  his  labor 
cost.     Farmer  No.  3  paid  rather  high  wages. 

On  New  York  farms,  horse  labor  usually  costs  25  to  30 
cents  per  hour  for  a  team.  Man  labor  costs  15  to  20  cents 
per  hour.     Economy  of  horse  labor  is,  therefore,  seen  to 


346 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


be  even  more  important  than  economy  of  man  labor. 
The  chief  reason  for  the  high  cost  of  horse  labor  is  the  large 
amount  of  time  that  horses  do  not  work.  On  the  farms  in 
Minnesota,  the  horses  averaged  a  little  over  3  hours  a  day 
for  300  days.  On  farm  No.  3  in  New  York,  an  unusually 
well-organized  farm,  they  worked  4.9  hours.     This  farmer 

HOUffS 
1000 


Jd.n.  Feb.  A<XR.  ApR    /Aa^  June  July    Au§    Sept.  Oct    Nov.    Dec. 

i  IG.  74.  —  Distriliution  of  horse  labor  on  farm  No.  1.  Seven  horses  kept. 
If  done  at  tlie  proper  time,  the  work  oouhl  l)e  better  done  with  5  horses. 
Black  is  work  fixed  as  to  time.  White  is  work  that  might  have  been 
done  at  some  other  time. 

is  the  one  previously  mentioned  who  kept  lists  of  work  for 
all  kinds  of  weather,  so  that  all  odd  jobs  were  done  when 
teams  could  not  work.  A  farmer  should  look  upon  an  idle 
team  in  the  barn  in  exactly  the  same  way  as  he  looks  upon 
a  hired-man  asleep  in  the  hay  mow.  If  the  high  cost  of 
horse  labor  were  realized,  horses  would  be  worked  more. 
The  chief  reason  why  it  is  not  realized  is  because  the  cost 
has  suddenly  increased  with  the  rise  in  value  of  feed  and 
labor,  and  farmers  have  not  yet  realized  the  change. 
220.    Ways  of   saving  horse  labor.  —  There  are  many 


FARM  LABOR 


347 


ways  of  saving  horse  labor.  The  most  evident  way 
is  to  keep  the  horses  busy  and  so  reduce  the  cost  per 
hour.  By  phxnning  the  work  ahead  it  is  often  possible 
to  do  the  work  with  fewer  horses.  The  horse  labor  for 
farmer  No.  1,  Table  71,  is  shown  in  Figure  74.  The  farmer 
kept  two  extra  horses  at  a  cost  of  $262,  when  the  onl}^  time 
that  he  needed  them  was  in  plowing  for  oats  and  corn. 

HOUf?b 

jOOO 


800 


600 


»oo 


g.00 


Jan     feb     /^AR    ApR    Aa^    June  July     Au^    SepT    Oct    Nov      Dec/ 

Fig.  75.  —  Distribution  of  horse  labor  on  farm  No.  2.  Six  horses  kept. 
Five  could  have  done  the  work  with  a  little  hired  horse  labor.  Black 
is  work  fixed  as  to  time.  White  is  work  that  might  have  been  done  at 
some  other  time. 

If  he  had  fall  plowed  for  oats,  he  would  have  secured  a 
better  crop  of  oats,  could  have  fitted  his  corn  ground  earlier 
and  better  with  two  less  horses,  and  had  considerable  time 
to  spare. 

The  horse  work  for  farm  No.  2  is  shown  in  Figure  75. 
There  were  6  horses  on  the  farm  and  105  acres  of  crops 
were  grown.  After  studying  the  results  of  his  cost  ac- 
counts the  farmer  decided  to  farm  more  land  and  to  hire 
some  horse  labor.     He  increased  his  crops  to  170  acres  and 


348 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


did  the  work  with  7  horses  and  30  days  of  hired  horse  labor. 
The  reguhir  i)oli('y  on  a  farm  should  be  to  keep  the 
horses,  as  well  as  the  men,  at  work. 

By  pasturing  and  by  roughing  horses  through  the 
winter,  farmers  are  able  to  reduee  the  cost  of  horse  labor. 

Another  way  to  reduce  the  cost  is  to  keep  large  mares 
and  raise  draft  colts  to  sell. 

Farmers  who  have  only  a  small  amount  of  work  often 
reduce  the  cost  by  having  cheap  horses.     Such  animals 

HOURS 

1000 


400 


|l 

^■^ 

fli 

HH 

Jan      Feb     M<\R    ApR      /A^y    June    July     Auij.     Sp.pt    Oct       Nov.     Dec 

Fig.  76.  —  13istril)ution  of  horse  labor  on  farm  No.  3.  Black  is  work  fixed 
as  to  time.  White  is  work  that  might  have  been  done  at  some  other 
time.     Four  horses  kept. 

can  work  hard  for  the  short  periods  when  there  is  work  to 
do,  and  rest  between  times.  Such  horses  should  not  be 
bred.  A  better  way  is  to  increase  the  business  so  as  to 
provide  full  work. 

221.  How  much  work  should  a  horse  do?  —  By  study- 
ing Table  54  it  will  be  seen  that  a  horse  raises  9  to  28 
acres  of  crops  in  the  different  counties  studied.  In  all 
these  regions  the  larger  and  better  managed  farms  doubt- 


FARM  LABOR  349 

less  raise  more  crops  per  horse.  If  a  farm  is  diversified, 
good-sized,  and  well-managed,  a  horse  can  raise  ahnost 
twice  the  average  area  of  crops.  On  many  well-managed 
farms  there  are  30  acres  of  crops  per  work  horse  or  mule, 
and  occasionally  50  acres  when  the  crops  include  tilled 
crops,  small  grain,  and  hay  in  such  combination  as  to  make 
a  full  season's  work.  If  the  crops  are  mostly  tilled  crops, 
the  area  per  horse  should  rarely  fall  below  25  acres.  Even 
with  this  area,  the  cost  of  horse  labor  will  be  $3  to  $6  per 
acre,  depending  on  the  value  of  feed. 

SUBSTITUTION   OF  ENGINES   FOR   HORSES 

222.  Engines  adapted  to  heavy  work.  —  On  large 
wheat  farms,  where  the  heaviest  work  of  the  year  is 
plowing,  engines  may  be  used  in  place  of  horses.  Engines 
have  also  replaced  horse  labor  in  threshing  and  many 
other  operations.  Thus  far,  engines  have  replaced  horses 
only  in  those  operations  that  require  a  large  amount  of 
power.  An  engine  that  draws  8  plows  is  replacing  16  to 
20  horses.  In  order  to  replace  as  many  horses  on  a  mow- 
ing machine,  an  engine  would  have  to  cut  a  swath  about 
50  feet  wide.  The  operations  in  which  a  horse  finishes  a 
wide  strip  of  land  at  one  trip  have  not  often  been  eco- 
nomically done  by  engines. 

223.  Engines  must  reduce  work  at  the  season  of 
greatest  pressure.  —  Many  attempts  have  been  made  to 
introtluce  engines  in  the  Eastern  States,  l)ut  such  efforts 
have  not  usually  been  successful.  In  the  Northeastern 
States,  the  hay  harvest  determines  the  number  of  horses 
that  must  be  kept.  Mowing,  tedding,  raking,  and  hauling 
in  haj'  are  all  light,  rapid  operations.  For  some  of  this 
work,  a  light  team  is  as  good  as  a  heavy  one.     An  engine 


350  FAHM   MANAGEMENT 

is  too  powerful  and  cumbersome  for  these  operations. 
There  is  no  economy  in  having  an  engine  for  plowing 
if  the  same  number  of  horses  must  be  kept  anyway,  and 
are  standing  in  the  stable  while  the  engine  works. 

In  the  corn-belt,  the  greatest  pressure  of  work  comes 
when  corn  cultivation  and  hay  and  small  grain  harvest 
follow  close  together  or  overlap.  The  engine  is  not 
adapted  to  these  operations,  hence  few  engines  are  used. 
Occasionally,  there  is  a  farm  in  each  of  these  regions  that 
follows  a  type  of  farming  that  can  use  an  engine  to  good 
advantage.  In  a  considerable  number  of  cases,  an  engine 
that  is  primarily  used  for  some  other  purpose  may  help  on 
the  farm  at  times  when  it  would  otherwise  be  idle.  This 
is  the  greatest  field  for  engines  in  all  regions. 

Where  large  areas  of  winter  wheat  are  grown,  it  is  of 
great  importance  that  the  plowing  be  done  promptly. 
An  engine  may  then  be  of  use  because  it  does  the  work  at 
the  proper  time.  Where  half  the  land  is  fallowed  in  arid 
regions,  the  engine  may  have  a  place.  In  some  regions, 
the  danger  of  storms  is  so  slight  that  wheat  may  safely  be 
left  standing  until  it  is  dry  enough  to  thresh.  An  engine 
may  then  be  used  to  draw  a  combined  harvester  and 
thresher.  But  even  in  these  regions,  horses  are  used  by 
most  of  the  farmers. 

Before  one  buys  an  engine,  he  should  see  whether  it  is 
to  do  work  at  the  time  of  year  when  horses  are  most 
needed.  There  is  little  point  in  having  an  engine,  if  one 
has  to  continue  to  keep  as  many  horses  as  he  needed  with- 
out it. 

PRODUCTIVE    WORK   UNITS 

224.  Definition.  —  Just  as  we  must  reduce  the  animals 
to  some  comparable  unit  and  the  feed  to  a  comparable 


FARM  LABOR 


351 


unit,  so  we  must  reduce  the  labor  to  a  comparable  unit 
when  we  desire  to  compare  the  efficiency  with  which 
different  farms  are  organized.  The  animal  unit  is  a  cow 
or  horse.  The  best  feed  unit  is  a  pound  of  corn.  A  work 
unit  is  the  time  required  to  raise  an  acre  of  hay,  cut  once. 
When  all  these  are  reduced  to  units  we  may  say  that 
a  farm  is  as  heavily  stocked  as  if  it  had  a  certain  number 
of  cows.  It  uses  feed  equivalent  to  a  certain  number  of 
pounds  of  corn,  has  work  equal  to  a  certain  number  of 

Table  72.  —  Productive  Work  Units 


Timothy,  alfalfa,  clover,  per 
acre  per  cutting 

Oats,  wheat,  barley,  rye,  buck- 
wheat, per  acre    

Corn,  husked  from  standing 
stalks,  per  acre 

Corn,  husked  from  shock  per 
acre 

Corn  for  silo,  per  acre  .... 

Field  beans,  per  acre  .     .     ;     . 

Cotton,  per  acre 

Tobacco,  per  acre 

Potatoes,  per  acre 

Cabbage,  per  acre 

Apples,  per  acre 

Dairy  cow 

10  cattle  or  colts  running  loose 

10  brood  sows  and  raising  pigs 
to  weaning 

50  hogs  not  brood  sows    . 

100  ewes 

100  hens    

Raising  200  chickens  .... 


Man  Work   Units 


Horse  Work  Units 


6 

6 

6 

7 

5 

5 

12 

6 

20 

7 

12 

10 

13 

12 

15 

5 

15 

2 

20 

1 

30 

5 

25 

5 

50 

3 

15 

2 

15 

2 

work  units,  and  has  a  certain  number  of  units  of  horse  labor. 

The  labor  involved  in  raisins;  a  crop  is  very  much  more 

than  the  time  ordinarily  counted  when  one  estimates  how 


352  FARM  MANAQ.EMENT 

long  it  will  take  for  each  operation,  because  there  are  so 
many  things  that  must  be  done  l)esides  the  actual  opera- 
tions. The  only  way  to  find  how  long  it  takes  to  raise 
different  crops  is  by  keeping  a  work  record.  The  units  here 
given  are  only  approximately  correct.  As  more  figures 
are  available,  more  accurate  figures  will  be  obtained.  It 
will  also  be  desirable  to  have  units  worked  out  for  differ- 
ent methods  of  production. 

The  unit  should  represent  the  average  comparative  time 
required  for  a  given  crop  or  animal.  Some  farmers  will  do 
the  work  quicker,  some  will  waste  time  and  take  longer. 

With  very  rapid  work  and  extensive  methods  it  is 
possible  to  do  a  unit  of  work  in  5  hours.  With  intensive 
methods  20  hours  is  sometimes  spent  to  advantage  in 
doing  a  unit  of  work.  With  methods  of  average  intensity 
and  average  efficiency  10  hours  is  usually  required.  In 
any  case  the  comparative  figures  are  about  the  same. 
With  extensive,  rapid  work  on  both  hay  and  small  grain, 
the  grain  usually  takes  twice  the  time  of  the  hay.  With 
slow  work  or  intensive  methods  both  take  longer,  but  the 
grain  still  takes  about  twice  as  long. 

A  farmer  may  lose  time  because  of  irregular  fields,  too 
small  an  area  of  the  crop,  or  too  few  animals,  because  fields 
are  too  far  away,  because  milk  is  hauled  too  far  or  in  too 
small  loads,  because  the  soil  is  hard  to  work  or  is  too  weedy, 
or  for  many  other  reasons.  It  makes  no  difference  how 
time  is  lost.  If  it  is  lost,  the  farm  is  inefficient.  This  may 
be  the  fault  of  natural  conditions  or  of  the  management. 

The  time  spent  on  a  horse  is  usually  about  the  same 
as  that  spent  on  a  cow,  but  this  is  not  productive  work. 
Much  other  work  is  done,  such  as  repairing  machinery. 
But  only  the  raising  of  crops,  the  producing  of  animal 
products,  and  the  raising  of  young  animals  is  productive. 


FARM  LABOR 


353 


Work  units  are  not  a  measure  of  how  hard  men  work 
but  of  what  is  accomplished.  They  are  a  measure  of  the 
amount  of  productive  work  done  on  the  farm.  Much 
unproductive  work  must  always  be  done.  Well-organized 
farms  are  able  to  do  300  productive  work  units  per  man 
and  yet  get  good  crops.  On  some  farms  the  men  aver- 
age as  high  as  400  work  units.  Horses  may  do  as  high  as 
150  work  units,  but  75  to  100  is  more  common. 

By  comparing  the  productive  work  or  work  units  on 
different  farms  we  may  get  an  approximate  measure  of 
what  is  being  accomplished.  For  instance,  the  farmer  re- 
ported on  page  537  had  the  crops  and  animals  shown  in 
Table  73:  — 

Table  73.  —  Productive  Work  Units 


Man  Work  Units 

Horse  Work  Units 

31  cows 

9  other  cattle 

27  sheep    

75  hens      

10  acres  corn  for  the  silo 

15  acres  potatoes 

2  acres  cabbage 

22  acres  oats 

9  acres  wheat 

67  acres  hay        

2  acres  buckwheat      .... 

2  acres  apples        

465 
18 
14 
11 
60 

180 
26 
44 
18 
67 
4 
30 

62 
2 
1 
2 

70 
150 
24 
66 
27 
67 
6 
10 

Units  per  man  and  horse 

937 
234 

487 
122 

The  farmer  kept  2  men  by  the  year  and  hired  about 
12  months  of  extra  labor.     The  average  work  units  done 
per  man  were  234.     Four  horses  were  kept.     The  work 
units  per  horse  averaged  122. 
2a 


354 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


A  neighbor  of  this  farmer,  who  was  also  a  good  farmer, 
had  the  crops  and  animals  shown  in  Table  74 :  — 

Table  74.  —  Crops  and  Animals  on  a  Farm  near  the  One 
Given  in  Table  73 


Man  Work   Units 

Horse  Work  Units 

8  cows 

?  other  cattle 

112  hens    

2  pigs 

4  acres  corn  for  the  silo     .     . 

1  acre  wheat 

6  acres  oats     

13  acres  hay 

2  acres  potatoes        .... 
f  acre  cabbage 

120 

4 
17 

1 
24 

2 
12 
13 
24 

9 

16 

2 

28 
3 
18 
13 
20 
9 

Units  per  man  or  horse    . 

226 
113 

109 
55 

This  farmer  kept  one  man  by  the  year.  The  work  units 
per  man  were  113  and  per  horse  55.  Men  and  horses 
are  accomplishing  half  as  much  as  on  the  neighbor's  farm. 

Of  course  other  work  was  done  on  both  farms.  The 
work  units  do  not  show  how  hard  the  men  worked,  but 
when  taken  together  with  crop  yields  and  milk  yields  they 
show  what  was  accomplished.  A  man  or  horse  on  the 
first  farm  was  accomplishing  about  twice  as  much  as  on 
the  second  farm.  In  this  case  the  difference  is  mostly  due 
to  size  of  farm.^ 

1  See  farm  No.  1,  page  511  and  No.  25,  page  531.  New  York,  Cornell 
Bulletin  295. 

A  Normal  Day's  Work  in  Various  Farm  Operations,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr., 
Bulletin  3. 

Distribution  of  Farm  Labor,  Missouri  Research  Bulletin  No.  6. 


CHAPTER  12 
FARM    EQUIPMENT 

This  is  the  age  of  machinery  on  the  farm  as  well  as  in 
the  city.  In  fact,  it  is  machinery  on  the  farm  that  enables 
the  small  number  of  farmers  to  grow  food  enough  to  sup- 
port the  large  number  of  persons  who  are  engaged  in 
making  machinery  for  town  and  country.  The  farmer's 
problems  are  to  determine  what  machinery  to  buy,  what 
makes  are  best,  and  to  so  handle  his  machinery  as  to  get 
the  fullest  use  of  it  and  make  it  last  well. 

225.  The  maintenance  of  equipment.  —  The  question 
of  housing  machinery  has  been  discussed  for  years,  and  its 
importance  sometimes  over-emphasized.  For  every  ma- 
chine that  is  ruined  by  exposure,  two  are  probably  spoiled 
by  not  being  properly  oiled,  or  not  having  the  bolts  kept 
tight.  These  are  less  conspicuous  mistakes  and  so  attract 
less  attention. 

Every  farm  should  have  a  shop  for  the  repair  of  equip- 
ment. It  will  usually  pay  to  have  a  forge  and  some  black- 
smith tools,  as  well  as  carpenter  tools.  Blacksmith  work 
can,  perhaps,  be  hired  done  as  cheaply  as  to  fit  up  a  shop 
at  home,  but  the  time  spent  in  going  to  the  shop  is  the 
important  item.  A  forge  and  a  few  tools  do  not  cost 
much,  but  save  much  time.  On  rainy  days,  and  in  winter 
weather,  the  farm  equipment  may  be  repaired  and  painted. 
If  there  are  boys  on  the  farm,  the  shop  will  be  a  great 
help  in  their  education. 

The  machinery  shed  for  housing  the  equipment  should 

355 


356 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


be  a  cheap  building.  It  is  possible  to  build  a  shed  that 
will  depreciate  as  much  as  the  machinery  that  it  stores 
would  depreciate  if  exposed. 

226.  Depreciation  on  machinery. — Table  75  gives  the 
average  depreciation  on  different  machines  on  a  number 
of  farms  in  Minnesota :  — 

Table  75. — Average  Depreciation  per  Year,  Based  on 
Original  Cost  as  100  Per  Cent.' 


Machine 

Depreciation 

Threshing  outfit 

Hay  loaders 

Manure  spreaders 

Corn  binders 

Harrows 

12.00% 

11.78 
11.67 
10.03 

8.72 

Sulky  plows 

Reapers        

8.42 
8.13 

Grain  binders 

Mowers         

7.91 

7.80 

Hay  rakes 

Hay  racks 

7.80 
7.76 

Gang  plows 

Gasoline  engines 

Corn  cultivators 

Corn  planters         . 

Grain  drills  and  seeders 

Harness  (heavy) 

Walking  plows 

Sleds        

7.40 
7.35 

7.25 
7.15 
6.75 
6.17 
6.09 
5.81 

Horse  weeders 

Disks 

5.71 
5.19 

Wagons        

4.89 

Hay  tedders 

Fanning  mills 

Grain  tanks 

4.84 
4.58 
3.47 

1  Minnesota,  Bulletin  117,  p.  17. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  303  states  that  a  corn  binder  lasts  an 
average  of  8.17  years.  The  annual  depreciation  is,  there- 
fore, 12,2  per  cent  of  the  original  value. 


FARM  EQUIPMENT  357 

The  depreciation  is  more  on  the.  more  compHcated 
machines,  such  as  threshing  machines.  Machines  that 
have  as  heavy  usage  as  corn  binders  depreciate  rapidly. 
Manure  spreaders  depreciate  rapidly,  because  the  manure 
rots  them.  New  kinds  of  machines  always  depreciate 
more  rapidly  than  those  that  have  been  in  use  for  many 
years. 

227.  Machinery  costs.  —  The  cost  of  machinery  in- 
cludes not  only  depreciation,  but  repairs,  cost  of  housing, 
interest  on  the  money  invested,  and  oil.  These  items 
usually  exceed  the  cost  of  depreciation.  Table  76  shows 
part  of  these  costs  for  a  considerable  number  of  farms  in 
Minnesota.  The  costs  of  housing  and  oil  were  not 
counted.     Interest  is  counted  at  6  per  cent. 

Nearly  all  the  farms  included  were  fairly  large,  so  that 
the  machinery  was  as  fully  employed  as  on  farms  in  any 
part  of  America. 

The  total  cost  of  machinery  per  acre  of  corn  varied  from 
$1.14  to  $1.75  in  different  regions  of  the  state.  Of  this 
cost,  the  corn  binder  amounted  to  over  half.  For  corn 
husked  from  the  standing  stalks,  the  machinery  costs 
varied  from  49  to  55  cents  per  acre  in  the  different 
regions. 

The  heavy  expense  for  the  corn  binder  is  one  of  the 
reasons  why  farmers  in  this  region  continue  to  harvest 
corn  from  the  standing  stalks.  So  long  as  hay  is  cheap,  it 
does  not  pay  to  go  to  the  many  expenses  involved  in  saving 
corn  stalks. 

The  total  machinery  costs  per  acre  of  small  grain,  not 
including  threshing  machine,  varied  from  37  to  56  cents. 

The  machinery  costs  for  hay  varied  from  29  to  55  cents 
per  acre  in  the  different  regions.  The  lowest  cost  is  in 
the  region  of  largest  farms. 


358  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

Table  76.  —  Machinery  Costs  per  Acre  * 


Machine 

Cost  per  Acre 

Grain  machinery 

Dinders     

$0,181 

Reapers 

.171 

Drills,  seeders 

Fanning  mills 

Grain  tanks        

Wagons,  sleds,  and  racks     .... 

Corn  machinery- 
Binders     

.075 
.010 
.011 
.034 

.826 

Planters    ...     

.087 

Cultivators 

Wagons,  sleds,  and  racks    .... 

Hay  machinery 

Mowers 

Rakes       

.155 
.158 

.206 
.085 

Tedders 

Loaders 

Ropes,  forks,  etc 

Wagons,  sleds,  and  racks     .... 

All  crop  machinery 

Plows 

Harrows 

.113 
.151 
.120 
.059 

.087 
.017 

Disks 

Threshing  outfit 

.089 
.335 

»  Minnesota,  Bulletin  117,  p.  18. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  these  costs  do  not  include 
the  cost  of  housing  machinery  or  of  oil. 

When  interest,  housing,  oil,  depreciation,  and  all  other 
costs  are  counted,  the  cost  of  machinery  on  a  farm  is  usually 
equal  to  20  per  cent  of  the  inventory  value.  The  in- 
ventory value  is,  of  course,  far  below  the  cost  price,  be- 
cause on  most  farms  there  is  machinery  of  all  ages. 

Cost  accounts  on  New  York    farms    usually    show  a 


FARM  EQUIPMENT  359 

machinery  cost  of  2  to  5  cents  for  each  hour  of  horse  labor. 
This  usually  amounts  to  a  cost  of  75  cents  to  $2  for  each 
acre  of  crops  grown.  In  regions  like  Minnesota,  the 
machinery  cost  is  probably  20  per  cent  of  its  value,  but 
since  more  acres  of  crops  are  grown  the  cost  is  less 
per  acre. 

228.  Duty  of  machinery.  —  The  number  of  acres  that 
one  may  expect  a  machine  to  work  is  sometimes  called 
the  duty  of  machinery.  An  average  of  a  large  number  of 
estimates  of  rates  of  work  for  different  machines  gave  1.4 
acres  as  a  day's  work  for  each  foot  wide  that  the  machine 
covers.  That  is,  a  day's  work  for  an  average  machine 
that  completes  one  foot  at  a  trip  would  be  1.4  acres  per 
day,  and  for  a  machine  that  covers  6  feet,  it  would  be  8.4 
acres  per  day. 

The  rates  of  work  varied  from  1  acre  per  day  for  each 
foot  covered  by  the  machine  to  over  2  acres.  One  acre 
per  day  is  very  slow  work,  and  1.75  acres  is  rapid  work. 
It  is  usually  safe  to  estimate  that  a  machine  of  light 
draft  with  good  horses  will  cover  1.5  acres  for  each  foot 
that  it  is  wide.  If  the  machine  is  a  heavy  one,  if  the 
horses  are  slow,  if  the  fields  are  small,  or  if  there  are  delays, 
the  rate  of  work  will  be  much  less. 

If  one  knows  the  period  in  which  the  work  is  to  be  done 
and  the  probable  proportion  of  days  on  which  work  can 
be  done,  he  can  make  an  approximate  estimate  of  the 
acres  that  a  machine  can  handle. 

Suppose  that  one  wishes  to  be  able  to  make  all  his 
timothy  hay  in  a  period  of  about  two  weeks,  and  that  in 
his  climate  he  can  count  on  two-thirds  of  the  days  being 
suitable  for  haying,  he  would  then  expect  about  8  days  on 
which  the  mower  could  be  used.  If  a  six-foot  mower  is 
drawn  by  two  fairly  good  horses,  it  will  be  a  machine  of 


360  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

medium  draft,  and  may  be  expected  to  cut  about  8  acres 
per  day,  or  about  64  acres  in  the  haying  season. 

But  if  one  wishes  to  do  most  of  the  mowing  in  the  late 
afternoon  and  early  morning,  so  as  to  have  all  the  teams 
haul  in  hay  during  the  dry  part  of  the  day,  he  will  want 
two  machines.  There  is  also  a  considerable  advantage  in 
having  two  machines  in  order  to  have  two  teams  mowing 
at  times  when  not  otherwise  busy.  There  is  also  a  gain 
in  safety ;  if  one  machine  breaks  down,  the  other  can  go 
on  with  the  work.  Most  farmers  who  have  over  fifty 
acres  to  cut  like  to  have  two  mowers.  One  of  these  may 
be  an  old  one. 

A  9-foot  hay  tedder  or  hay  rake  is  fairly  light  draft 
and  may  be  made  to  cover  12  to  15  acres,  or  even  more, 
per  day,  so  that  in  8  days  one  of  these  will  do  the  work  on 
about  100  acres  if  kept  going,  but  the  process  of  hay 
curing  does  not  allow  steady  use.  The  hay  should  be 
tedded  and  raked  at  the  proper  time.  Farmers  usually 
desire  an  additional  tedder  or  rake  if  they  have  over  60  or 
75  acres  of  timothy  hay. 

In  parts  of  the  wheat  country,  the  work  that  a  binder 
can  do  is  of  great  importance.  In  regions  where  there  is 
danger  of  storms,  the  wheat  should  be  cut  in  a  period  of 
one  or  two  weeks.  An  eight-foot  binder,  drawn  by  four 
good  horses,  is  a  fairly  rapidly  moving  machine.  It  may 
be  expected  to  cut  12  acres  a  day.  Sometimes  horses 
and  men  are  changed,  and  the  machines  kept  going  all 
the  day  and  most  of  the  night,  in  order  to  get  the  grain 
cut.  If  there  are  over  100  acres  of  wheat  to  cut,  it  is 
usually  considered  desirable  to  have  two  machines. 

Similar  estimates  may  be  made  for  any  machine,  but 
practical  experience  in  the  region  is  the  final  guide  to 
follow. 


m%i^ 


FARM  EQUIPMENT  361 

229.  "What  machinery  to  buy.  —  Whether  or  not  it  will 
pay  to  buy  any  particuhir  machine  depends  primarily  on 
how  much  the  capital  is  needed  for  other  purposes,  the 
area  on  which  the  machine  is  to  be  used,  and  the  possibility 
of  hiring  the  work  done  at  the  desired  time. 

For  instance,  the  depreciation  on  a  corn  binder  amounts 
to  about  S14  per  year.  Interest,  insurance,  and  housing 
will  usually  bring  the  cost  to  a  fixed  charge  of  $20  per  year. 
If  there  are  only  20  acres  of  corn  to  cut,  this  will  make  a 
cost  of  $1  per  acre  besides  the  time  and  labor.  At  this  rate, 
it  is  usually  cheaper  to  cut  the  corn  by  hand  or  hire  a 
neighbor  to  cut  it.  The  total  charge  for  cutting,  including 
the  horses  and  driver,  is  often  SI  per  acre.  No  one  can 
afford  to  buy  a  binder  to  cut  corn  at  this  rate.  But  farmers 
often  own  machines  when  they  do  not  have  work  enough 
to  keep  them  busy,  and  also  have  idle  horses.  For  this 
reason,  they  can  often  be  hired  at  prices  so  low  that  one 
cannot  afford  to  own  the  machine.  If  a  machine  cannot  be 
hired,  and  if  men  cannot  be  secured  to  cut  by  hand,  then 
it  will  pay  to  own  a  corn  binder  if  one  must  cut  20  acres 
of  corn. 

The  majority  of  farmers  have  about  the  right  amount 
of  machinery,  but  there  are  some  in  every  community 
who  have  too  much  machinery  for  their  farms  and,  per- 
haps, an  equal  number  who  have  too  little.  There  are 
thousands  of  farmers  who  have  $100  machines  on  their 
farms  that  are  used  only  two  or  three  days  in  the  year.  A 
$100  machine  that  is  used  only  three  days  a  year  usually 
costs  about  $7  per  day.  If  one  could  not  afford  to  hire  a 
machine  at  this  price,  he  should  not  buy  one. 

One  should  be  very  slow  in  buying  new  inventions. 
When  a  new  invention  is  put  on  the  market,  the  deprecia- 
tion must  be  expected  to  be  very  high.     A  machine  has 


362  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

to  be  used  under  all  kinds  of  conditions  by  all  kinds  of 
farmers  before  the  makers  find  which  parts  should  be 
strengthened.  A  still  greater  source  of  depreciation  is  due 
to  improvements  that  make  the  later  machines  so  much 
better  that  the  old  one  must  be  thrown  away  before  it  is 
worn  out. 

The  experience  when  grain  harvesters  were  introduced 
is  typical.  My  father  bought  a  Marsh  harvester.  Two 
men  stood  on  a  platform  to  bind  the  grain.  One  man 
drove  three  horses.  Usually  two  more  horses  were  hitched 
on  in  front  and  a  boy  rode  one  of  these.  The  machine 
had  so  much  side  draft,  and  was  so  heavy  on  the  horses' 
necks  that  it  was  very  hard  on  them.  With  all  its  de- 
fects, it  was  a  great  improvement  over  the  self-rake  that 
it  displaced.  It  was  used  all  over  the  neighborhood. 
But  it  was  never  worn  out ;  before  it  had  paid  for  itself, 
the  wire  self-binder  was  introduced.  A  neighbor  bought 
one  of  these,  and  the  wonderful  Marsh  harvester  be- 
came a  chicken  roost.  But  the  machine  was  not  yet 
perfected.  Before  the  wire  binder  was  worn  out,  and 
before  the  neighbor  got  his  money  back,  the  twine  binder 
displaced  it.  Another  neighbor  bought  one  of  these. 
It  was  a  better  machine,  but  the  knotter  was  far  from 
perfect.  The  machine  was  good  enough,  however,  so 
that  it  was  used  a  number  of  years,  and  probably  paid  its 
cost  before  it  was  displaced  by  machines  with  a  better 
knotter,  lighter  draft,  and  wider  cut,  and  that  carried 
bundles  to  be  dropped  in  rows.  Improvements  are  still 
being  made  on  the  machine  and  will  likely  continue,  but 
one  who  buys  a  grain  harvester  to-day  may  expect  to 
wear  it  out  and  not  have  to  throw  it  away  because  it  is 
out  of  date. 

The  early  history  of  nearly  every  new  invention  is  the 


FARM  EQUIPMENT  363 

same.  The  automobiles  bought  a  few  years  ago  went  out 
of  date  because  of  the  improvements  made  before  they 
were  worn  out.  In  recent  years  the  models  have  become 
standardized  and  the  depreciation  is  less,  but  is  still  high. 

Milking  machines  have  been  greatly  changed  since  the 
first  ones  were  sold  to  farmers.  They  will  doubtless  be 
much  changed  in  the  near  future.  It  is  very  doubtful  if 
they  have  yet  paid  any  farmer,  when  depreciation  and 
interest  are  counted.  The  following  quotation  about 
milking  machines  is  typical :  "  Owing  to  the  numerous 
changes  in  the  milker  on  account  of  improvements  which 
have  been  introduced,  there  has  been  no  opportunity  to 
determine  the  expense  of  maintenance  due  to  the  wearing 
out  of  various  mechanical  parts  of  the  machine.^ 

With  machinery,  as  well  as  with  anything  else,  the  safe 
advice  is  to  "  Be  not  the  first  by  whom  the  new  is  tried, 
nor  yet  the  last  to  lay  the  old  aside."  If  one  has  the 
money,  he  may  do  some  of  the  experimenting  with  new 
things  for  the  fun  of  it  or  for  the  benefit  of  the  community, 
but  not  for  profit. 

The  young  man  who  is  short  of  money  can  usually  buy 
most  of  his  machinery  at  public  sales  and  save  considerable 
of  his  money  for  other  uses.  If  good  judgment  is  used, . 
one  may  buy  very  cheaply  in  this  way.  The  man  with 
plenty  of  money  usually  prefers  to  buy  most  of  his  ma- 
chinery new. 

References 

Farm  Equipment,  Ohio  Bulletin,  227  or  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bureau 

Plant  Industry,  Bulletin  212. 
Minor  Items  of  Farm  Equipment,  Ohio,  Circular  98,  or  U.  S. 

Dept.  Agr.,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  Circular  44. 
The   Repair  of  Farm  Equipment,   U.  S.   Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers' 

Bulletin,  347. 

» New  York,  State  Sta.  Bulletin  353. 


364  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

The  Cost  of  Producing  Minnesota  Farm  Products,  Minnesota 

Bulletin   117   or   U.   S.    Dept.   Agr.,  Bureau   of   Statistics, 

Bulletin  73. 
Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  L.  H.  Bailey,  Vol.  I,  pp. 

162-217. 
The  Influence  of  Height  of  Wheels  on  Draft  of  Farm  Wagons, 

Missouri,  Bulletin  52. 
The  Influence  of  Width  of  Tire  on   Draft  of  Farm  Wagons, 

Missouri,  Bulletin  39,  pp.  3-4. 
Farm  Management,  F.  W.  Card,  pp.  40-47. 
The  Course  of  Prices  of  Farm  Implements  and  Machinery,  U.  S. 

Dept.  Agr.,  Bureau  of  Statistics,  Bulletin  18. 


CHAPTER   13 

FARM    LAYOUT 

The  present  arrangement  of  practically  all  farms  is  the 
result  of  accident.  The  older  the  country  the  worse  the 
farm  layout,  because  as  new  obstacles  are  introduced,  the 
fields  become  smaller  and  more  irregular.  As  new  buildings 
are  built  and  old  ones  patched  up,  numerous  unrelated 
buildings  collect.  Every  farmer  should  make  a  more  or  less 
definite  plan  for  the  development  of  his  farm,  so  that  new 
fences  and  other  changes  will  gradually  work  toward  a  defi- 
nite plan. 

FIELD  ARRANGEMENT 

230.  Size  and  shape  of  fields.  —  For  economy  in  work, 
fields  should  be  large.  The  more  horses  one  drives  per 
team,  the  more  important  it  is  to  have  long  rounds  so  as 
not  to  waste  time  in  turning.  The  negro  farming  with  one 
mule  can  farm  rather  small  fields,  but  when  three-  to  five- 
horse  teams  are  used,  fields  should  be  large. 

The  time  required  to  plow  an  acre  on  stubble  land  in 
England  gave  the  following  comparisons  :  — 


Time  to  Plow  One  Acre 

Hours 

Minutes 

8 
18 
25 

58 

10 
9 

8 
8 

45 

30 

45 

0 

365 


366  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

In  one  trial  in  New  York,  E.  L.  Baker  found  that  it 
took  5  hours  and  37  minutes  to  plow  an  acre  in  a  field 
16  rods  long,  and  took  6  hours  and  23  minutes  in  a  field  7 
rods  long.  He  found  the  time  required  to  turn  around 
with  two  horses  to  average  one-half  minute  before  the 
farmer  could  be  ready  to  start  again. 

For  most  kinds  of  general  farming,  fields  ought  to  be 
at  least  40  rods  long;  80  rods  is  very  much  better,  and 
160  is  still  better. 

The  shape  of  fields  is  also  very  important.  All  irregular 
shapes  are  objectionable.  Square  fields  are  not  satis- 
factory, unless  they  are  very  large.  If  large  enough  to  be 
cut  in  two  for  operations  that  require  going  around 
the  field,  they  are  satisfactory.  In  harvesting  and  mowing, 
a  square  field  must  be  cut  in  two,  or  there  will  be  many 
very  short  rounds  in  finishing  the  field.  Unless  the  fields 
are  very  large,  a  field  about  a  half  longer  than  wide  is  a 
very  desirable  shape.  Many  of  the  operations  can  be 
done  the  long  way  of  the  field  and  so  have  long  rounds. 
Yet  such  a  field,  if  of  reasonable  size,  is  wide  enough  so 
that  it  may  be  harrowed  or  cultivated  crosswise  without 
great  loss  of  time. 

The  time  required  to  plow  an  acre  in  a  triangular  field 
averaging  7  rods  wide  was  found  to  be  6  hours  and  51 
minutes.  The  time  for  a  rectangular  field  of  this  width 
was  6  hours  and  23  minutes. 

The  cost  of  fencing  is  very  heavy  for  small  fields,  and  is 
still  worse  for  irregular  fields.  The  cost  of  construction 
and  permanency  of  a  fence  depend  largely  on  the  corner 
posts.  Irregular  fields  have  too  many  corners.  On  most 
farms,  all  posts  except  the  corners  can  be  driven  from  a 
wagon,  so  that  it  does  not  take  very  long.  But  properly 
set  and  braced  corners  take  time. 


"2    3    " 

c  >5  o 


368  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

A  square  field  of  one  acre  requires  50  rods  of  fence.  A 
square  field  of  10  acres  requires  160  rods,  or  16  rods  for 
each  acre.  A  square  field  of  40  acres  requires  320  rods, 
or  8  rods  per  acre.  A  620-acre  field  requires  1240  rods  of 
fence,  or  2  rods  per  acre. 

The  materials  and  labor  for  a  woven  wire  fence  cost 
50  to  75  cents  per  rod.  Interest  and  depreciation  on 
this  cost  will  usually  amount  to  5  to  10  cents  a  rod  per 
year.  This  makes  the  annual  cost  of  fencing  about  S2.50 
per  acre  for  one  acre,  80  cents  per  acre  for  the  10-acre  field, 
40  cents  per  acre  for  the  40-acre  field,  and  10  cents  per 
acre  for  the  620-acre  field. 

The  value  of  farm  land  is  determined  by  its  earning 
power.  If  interest  rates  are  five  per  cent,  then  a  change 
in  a  field  that  makes  it  permanently  earn  S2  more  per 
acre  every  year  increases  the  value  of  the  land  $40  per 
acre.  Or  a  change  that  permanently  reduces  the  expense 
by  S2  per  acre  per  year  has  the  same  effect.  On  this  basis, 
the  10-acre  field  would  be  worth  $34  per  acre  more  than  the 
one-acre  field,  if  they  both  were  to  be  kept  fenced  per- 
manently. In  other  words,  the  $1.70  difference  in  fencing 
cost  is  rent  at  5  per  cent  on  $34  worth  of  land. 

So  far  as  possible,  the  main  fields  on  the  farm  should  be 
of  the  same  size.  So  far  as  possible,  the  farm  should  be 
laid  out  so  that  the  soil  in  a  field  is  uniform.  It  is  particu- 
larly important  that  it  be  uniform  in  drainage,  otherwise 
the  entire  field  must  wait  for  the  wet  spots  to  dry  up 
before  it  is  worked.  Tile  drainage  for  the  wet  places 
will  help  in  this  matter. 

231.  Distance  to  fields.  —  The  fields  should  be  so  ar- 
ranged that  they  will  come  as  near  to  the  barn  as  possible. 

For  any  given  condition,  the  relative  value  of  fields  near 
the  barn  and  far  away  may  be  determined.     If  a  five-year 


FARM  LAYOUT  369 

rotation  is  used  with  corn  one  year,  small  grain  two  years, 
and  hay  two  years,  and  if  10  loads  of  manure  per  acre 
are  used  during  the  rotation,  then  there  will  usually  be 
more  than  20  round  trips  to  the  field  for  a  man  and  more 
than  40  for  a  horse  in  the  five  years  for  each  acre  in  the 
field.  This  would  be  an  average  of  4  man  trips  and  8 
horse  trips  per  acre  per  year.  If  corn  silage  is  grown,  or 
if  the  field  is  small,  the  trips  will  usually  be  more  because 
more  days  are  required. 

If  a  field  is  40  rods  from  the  barn,  each  round  trip  would 
make  80  rods  of  travel.  Such  a  field  would  require  a 
mile  of  extra  travel  for  a  man  and  2  miles  of  extra  travel 
for  a  horse  each  year  over  the  time  required  by  a  field 
next  the  barn.  This  will  take  about  one  hour  of  horse 
time  and  half  an  hour  of  man  time.  This  time  should  be 
worth  about  20  cents  a  year.  But  this  is  interest  at  5  per 
cent  on  $4.  It  will,  therefore,  appear  that  with  the  above 
considerations  a  field  near  the  barn  is  worth  $4  per  acre 
more  than  a  field  40  rods  away.  Similarly,  there  would  be 
a  difference  of  $8  for  80  rods,  and  $16  for  half  a  mile.  If 
a  neighbor  owned  land  near  one's  barn,  it  would  pay  to 
buy  this  and  sell  land  as  far  away  as  half  a  mile,  if  the 
difference  in  price  were  not  over  $16.  If  such  crops  as 
potatoes,  apples,  and  cabbages  are  grown,  the  difference 
is  much  more. 

Any  one  can  figure  the  approximate  time  lost  in  going 
to  and  from  distant  fields  with  his  particular  type  of  farm- 
ing, and  determine  the  approximate  value  of  such  fields 
as  compared  with  fields  near  by.  All  over  the  country, 
farms  are  so  laid  out  that  land  near  one  man's  barn  is 
farmed  by  some  one  farther  away.  In  the  Western  States, 
land  just  across  the  road  from  one  farmstead  is  often 
farmed  by  a  neighbor  who  lives  half  a  mile  awa'^r.  Fre- 
2b 


370  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

quently,  it  will  pay  to  buy  such  land  so  as  to  make  a  better 
laid-out  farm.  It  is  worth  much  more  to  the  farmer  who 
lives  near  it. 

The  ideal  arrangement  is  to  have  half  of  the  land  on 
each  side  of  the  highway.  Unfortunately,  the  excellent 
system  of  laying  out  land  in  square  miles  in  the  West 
resulted  in  making  the  road  the  usual  farm  boundary. 
In  much  of  the  area,  every  other  section  was  given  to  the 
railroads.  This  was  usually  held  until  the  free  land  was 
all  settled.  This  method  of  settlement  usually  prevented 
farmers  from  getting  land  on  both  sides  of  the  highway. 
This  error  has  cost  the  farmers  many  millions  of  dollars' 
worth  of  lost  time  in  going  to  and  from  the  fields. 

232.  Four  methods  of  farm  layout.  —  Very  frequently, 
the  farmstead  on  a  160-acre  farm  is  on  one  corner  of  the 
farm.  The  land  is  then  no  nearer  the  buildings  than  it  is 
on  a  640-acre  farm  with  the  buildings  in  the  center.  Such 
a  farm  has  the  chief  disadvantages  and  none  of  the  advan- 
tages of  the  640-acre  farm. 

Figures  78,  79,  80,  and  81  show  four  different  arrange- 
ments for  a  160-acre  farm.  In  each  case,  the  barn  is  10 
rods  from  the  road,  and  a  little  over  6  acres  is  allowed  for 
farmstead,  garden,  yards,  paddocks,  and  minor  crops. 

The  average  distance  from  the  barn  to  the  nearest  corner 
of  the  different  fields  in  Figure  78  is  68  rods.  If  the  farm- 
stead is  placed  in  the  center,  as  in  Figure  79,  the  average 
distance  is  48  rods.  This  makes  a  saving  of  40  rods  on 
every  load  hauled  and  on  every  other  round  trip  to  the 
field. 

The  fields  with  the  arrangement  in  Figure  78  are  too 
long  for  their  width.  Those  in  Figure  79  are  better  shaped, 
but  with  this  arrangement  there  are  two  fields  that  are  too 
near  square. 


FAHM  LAYOUT 


371 


a 

3 

a 

Fig.  78.  —  Farm  layout  with  the 
buildings  on  one  corner  of  the 
farm. 


Fig.  79.  —  Farm  layout  with  the 
buildings  in  the  center  on  one 
side  of  the  farm. 


6 

B 

Fig.  80.  —  Farm  layout  with  the 
buildings  in  the  center  of  the 
farm.     A  good  layout. 


Fig.  81.  —  Farm  layout 
with  a  square  area  on 
each  side  of  the  road. 
A  good  layout. 


372 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


With  the  layout  in  Figure  79,  it  requires  122  rods  less 
fence  to  fence  the  entire  farm. 

It  is  sometimes  said  that  the  farmstead  should  be  on 
the  side  nearest  town.  One  bulletin  has  the  contradictory 
statements  that  the  farmstead  should  be  in  the  center  of 
the  farm  and  should  be  on  the  corner  nearest  town. 

For  practically  any  conditions,  a  comparison  of  the 
time  lost  by  having  farther  to  go  to  town  with  the  time 
lost  by  having  the  fields  farther  away,  results  in  a  decided 
advantage  for  locating  as  near  the  center  of  the  farm  as 
possible  and  yet  remain  on  the  highway.  Even  a  retail 
milk  farm  that  must  send  a  load  to  town  every  day  saves 
time  by  locating  near  the  fields,  rather  than  near  town. 


Table  77.  —  Relation  of  Farm  Layout  to  Distance  to 
Fields! 


160-ACRE  Farm 

640-ACRE  Farm 

Layout 

Average 

Distance 

Barn  to 

Fields 

Average 
Distance 
Barn  to 
Center  of 
Fields 

Avprage 

Distance 

Barn  to 

Fields 

Average 

Distance 

Barn  to 

Center  of 

Fields 

Figure  78     .     .     . 
Figure  79     .     .     . 
Figure  80     .     .     . 
Figure  81     .     .     . 

rods 

68 
48 
26 
23 

rods 

143 

112 

78 
84 

rods 

136 
96 
52 
46 

rods 

286 
224 
156 
168 

1  Farmstead,  minor  crops,  paddocks,  25  acres  on  640-acre  farm,  and 
6i  acres  on  160-acre  farm.  Public  roads  4  rods  wide  on  two  sides  of 
each  parcel  of  land  for  160  acres.  Road  on  all  sides  of  each  parcel  for  640 
acres  in  Figures  78  and  79,  and  on  three  sides  of  each  parcel  in  Figures  80 
and  81. 

Barn  10  rods  from  the  road  on  160  acres  and  20  rods  on  640  acres. 
Reducing  the  farmstead,  etc.,  or  moving  the  barn  nearer  the  road,  makes 
the  difference  a  little  more  in  favor  of  the  farms  with  land  on  both  sides 
of  the  road. 


FARM  LAYOUT  373 

In  Figure  80  is  shown  how  the  fields  might  be  laid  out.  if 
the  farm  consisted  of  80  acres  (80  X  160  rods)  on  each  side 
of  the  road.  This  is  a  very  much  better  arrangement  than 
either  of  the  preceding.  The  average  distance  from  the 
barn  to  the  fields  is  26  rods,  —  a  saving  of  84  rods  on  every 
round  trip  to  the  fields,  as  compared  with  having  the  farm- 
stead on  the  corner  of  the  farm.  From  the  bam  to  the 
center  of  the  fields  averages  65  rods  less  than  for  Figure  78. 
For  many  kinds  of  work,  this  represents  the  saving  to  be 
made.  The  fields  are  also  better  shaped,  except  the  one 
that  is  nearly  square. 

To  fence  the  entire  farm  with  this  layout  requires  less 
fence  than  Figure  78,  but  more  than  Figure  79. 

The  time  saved  every  year  with  this  arrangement  would 
pay  interest  at  5  per  cent  on  a  difference  in  value  of  about 
SIOOO  for  the  160  acres  over  Figure  78. 

How  the  farm  would  look  if  the  area  on  each  side  of  the 
road  were  a  square  instead  of  being  80  X  160  rods  is  shown 
in  Figure  81.  This  arrangement  requires  more  fence  than 
Figure  80.  The  corners  of  the  fields  are  nearer,  but  the 
centers  are  farther  away.  There  seems  to  be  little  choice 
between  having  the  farmstead  in  the  center  of  a  square  and 
having  two  squares,  one  on  each  side  of  the  road,  with  the 
farmstead  in  the  middle. 

We  may  consider  the  figures  to  represent  640  acres  of 
land  with  the  farmstead  and  all  fields  4  times  as  large.  If 
one  had  640  acres  of  land  with  buildings  on  one  corner,  and 
the  land  laid  out  like  Figure  78,  the  average  distance  to 
the  fields  would  be  136  rods  and  to  the  centers  of  the  fields, 
the  distance  would  average  286  rods.  These  distances  are 
too  great  for  economical  work.  But  with  320  acres  (half 
sections)  on  each  side  of  the  road,  the  distances  to  fields 
would  average  52  rods,  and  to  the  centers  of  the  fields  156 


374  FABM  MANAGEMENT 

rods.  These  distances  are  reasonable.  The  fields  are  then 
as  near  the  bam  as  \vith  one-fourth  the  area  laid  out  like 
Figure  78. 

233.  Locating  the  farmstead  off  the  highway. — We 
have  seen  that  the  ideal  place  for  the  buildings  is  in  the 
center  of  the  farm  with  a  public  road  going  by  the  buildings. 

If  the  land  all  lies  on  one  side  of  the  road,  the  best  place 
for  the  farmstead  is  in  the  center  of  the  side  of  the  farm 
on  the  road.  The  many  objections  to  locating  away  from 
the  public  road  more  than  offset  the  advantages  of  being 
near  the  fields.  With  rural  mail  delivery,  one  must  go  to 
the  highway  every  day  for  mail.  As  the  parcels  post  is 
developed,  it  will  become  increasingly  important  to  live 
on  the  highway.  If  there  is  anything  to  ssll  to  neighbors, 
it  is  much  more  likely  to  be  sold  if  one  lives  on  the  highway. 
Many  times  one  can  send  to  town  by  neighbors  who  are 
passing  the  house.  If  the  farm  is  not  located  on  the  high- 
way, the  strip  of  private  road  must  be  kept  up.  Every 
trip  to  town  is  a  longer  trip.  Farms  with  buildings  off  the 
highway  do  not  sell  as  well.  When  all  these  things  are 
considered,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  farmstead  should  be  on 
the  public  road.  Wholly  aside  from  all  the  above  con- 
siderations, it  is  desirable  to  live  where  people  can  be  seen 
occasionally.  Farm  life  is  isolated  enough  at  best.  Some- 
times the  buildings  may  be  located  in  the  center  of  the 
farm,  and  a  new  public  road  opened  that  will  pass  them. 
One  can  well  afford  to  give  the  right  of  way  for  such  a 
road  in  return  for  the  advantages  of  locating  in  the  center 
of  the  farm. 

234.  Present  conditions  on  farms.  —  In  the  country 
that  was  covered  with  trees  in  the  eastern  part  of  the 
United  States,  small,  irregular  fields  were  gradually 
cleared  by  the  early  settlers.     The  fields  were  surrounded 


FAEM  LAYOUT  376 

with  rail  or  stump  fences  that  helped  to  keep  off 
some  of  the  wild  animals.  Much  of  the  land  was  more  or 
less  stony.  The  stones  were  used  to  make  stone  fences, 
or  were  piled  into  the  field  lines.  In  this  haphazard  way, 
the  field  lines  became  obstacles.  Brush  and  trees  promptly 
grew  so  that  the  fence  lines  often  became  10  to  15  feet 
wide.  In  the  early  days,  small  fields  and  irregular  shapes 
were  not  a  very  serious  matter.  Such  fields  were  not 
obstacles  to  the  scythe,  grain  cradle,  and  hoe.  A  five-acre 
field  was  larger  in  terms  of  labor  than  a  20-acre  field  is 
to-day.  At  the  same  time  that  small  fields  were  developed, 
small  farms  also  became  the  rule.  Lumber  for  building 
houses  was  cheap.  A  small  area  was  all  that  could  be 
worked  with  the  poor  equipment.  In  addition,  lumbering 
furnished  occupation,  so  that  the  farm  was  not  the  only 
means  of  support.  The  public  roads  usually  developed 
in  the  same  haphazard  manner. 

Conditions  have  now  changed.  Larger  farms  and  larger 
fields  are  needed,  and  irregular  shapes  are  serious  diffi- 
culties. Where  the  obstacles  are  not  too  serious,  it  pays  to 
gradually  combine  fields,  so  as  to  get  fields  of  good  sizes 
and  shapes. 

In  Figure  82  is  shown  the  layout  of  8  farms  in  Western 
New  York.  This  is  in  a  prosperous  farming  community. 
As  one  rides  by  these  farms,  he  does  not  realize  how  small 
and  irregular  the  fields  are.  Maps  show  the  defects  much 
more  strikingly  than  the  farms  do.  Except  for  a  hill  on 
one  farm,  there  are  no  serious  obstacles  to  laying  out  these 
farms  in  any  way  desired.  The  land  has  gentle  slopes.  A 
few  open  ditches  would  have  to  be  filled.  There  are  some 
hedgerows  that  would  have  to  be  grubbed  out,  but  not 
many  stones  along  the  fence  lines.  The  wood-lots  could 
not  profitably  be  cleared  in  less  than  20  years,  because  it 


376 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


is  cheaper  to  pasture  them 
while  the  stumps  rot  than 
to  clear  at  once.  None  of 
the  wood-lots  are  of  much 
value.  It  is  excellent  farm 
land,  altogether  too  valu- 
able to  be  left  in  woods. 
Figure      77      also      shows 


typical  farms  in  the  older 
country. 

Fig.  82.  —  Layout  of  8  farms, 
showing  the  division  into  fields. 
Shaded  areas  are  woods.  About 
700  acres  of  land.  1  inch  =100 
rods. 


FARM  LAYOUT 


377 


The  layout  of  a  number  of  farms  in  Kansas  is  seen  in 
Fig.  83.  This  was  a  treeless  country.  There  were  few 
obstacles  to  laying  out  in  any  desired  shape.  The  land 
was  worked  with  machinery  when  first  broken  up,  so  that 


JL 


Fig.  83. 


Layout  of  2560  acres  (4  sections)  of  land  in  Kansas,  showing 
the  division  into  large  fields. 


there  has  been  no  temptation  to  make  small  fields.     Even 
this  section  could  be  much  improved. 

235.  Rearranging  farms.  —  The  farmsteads  o-  most 
farms  are  located,  and  usually  the  amount  ot  capital 
invested  makes  it  inadvisable  to  change  the  present  loca- 
tion, but  there  are  some  cases  in  which  it  would  pay  to 


378 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


move.  In  many  more  cases,  it  will  pay  to  buy  land  so  as 
to  get  a  good  sluiped  area  surrounding  the  farmstead. 

Unfortunately,  it  is  difficult  to  make  the  necessary 
sales  and  purchases  in  order  to  rearrange  farms  so  that 
they  can  be  worked  to  the  best  advantage.  Sometimes 
such  changes  can  be  made. 

Nearly  always  some  improvement  can  be  made  in 
the  arrangement  of  fields.     Such  changes  can  be  made 


Fig.  84.  —  Layout  of  a  farm  as  it  was  in  1902.     See  Figure  85. 

gradually,  and  the  necessary  work  done  at  odd  times,  so 
that  the  expense  will  not  be  felt. 

In  Figure  84  is  seen  the  field  arrangement  on  a  New 
York  farm  as  it  was  when  the  present  owner  bought  the 
place  in  1902.^  The  farm  had  been  rented  for  some  time, 
and  some  of  the  fence  lines  had  been  allowed  to  grow  up 
to  brush.  Between  fields  6  and  10,  there  was  a  brush 
line  about  8  feet  wide,  and  about  65  loads  of  stone.  There 
was  also  about  1  acre  of  brush  in  field  10.     Between  fields  7 

1  Maps  and  data  on  this  farm  were  furnished  by  C.  E.  Ladd. 


FARM  LAYOUT 


879 


and  12,  there  was  a  brush  line  about  25  feet  wide  and  about 
120  loads  of  stone.  Between  fields  11  and  12,  there  was 
an  open  ditch  that  could  not  be  crossed ;  along  this  was 
the  usual  thicket  of  trees,  brush,  and  weeds.  All  these 
lines  of  trees  ran  diagonally  across  the  fields,  so  as  to 
make  short  rows  on  both  sides.  In  fields  6  and  10,  there 
were  1 5  short  rows  when  planted  to  potatoes.    Between  fields 


»•"■■  "- 


Fig.  85.  —  Layout  of  the  farm  shown  in  Figure  84  as  it  was  in   1911. 
Three  large  fields  instead  of  7  small  ones. 


1  and  2,  there  was  a  tumbled  down  stone  wall.  This  also 
ran  diagonally  across  the  fields,  so  as  to  make  short  rows. 
When  the  owner  fixed  over  his  barn,  the  stone  wall 
between  fields  1  and  2  was  sorted  over  and  the  best  stones 
taken  for  foundation.  The  balance  was  hauled  to  the 
stone  pile.  The  owner  estimated  that  there  were  three 
good  two-horse  loads  to  the  rod,  or  114  loads  in  the  38 
rods.  Stones  were  hauled  to  the  barn  by  two  men  and 
a  team  at  the  rate  of  about  3  loads  per  hour,  and  were 


880 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


hauled  to  the  stone  pile  at  the  rate  of  about  2  loads  per 
hour.  To  remove  the  entire  stone  wall  required  about 
91  hours  of  man  time  and  91  hours  of  horse  time.  At  20 
cents  per  hour  for  a  man  and  30  cents  for  a  team,  the  work 
would  have  cost  $32.  About  23  square  rods  of  land  were 
added  to  the  farm  worth  $60  per  acre,  or  $9.  Much  of 
the  stone  was  used  for  a  useful  purpose.  All  was  hauled 
at  odd  times  when  there  was  no  important  work  for 
teams  and  men,  so  that  th?  net  charge  of  $23  is  too  high. 
But  this  is  a  small  amount  to  pay  for  changing  two  small 
fields  to  one  large  one,  getting  rid  of  short  rows,  and  saving 
the  work  of  mowing  the  stone  line  every  summer. 

The  farmer  has  gradually  clearetl  out  the  hedgerows  at 
odd  times,  and  brought  this  land  into  cultivation.  In 
1910,  he  laid  a  stone  drain  in  the  open  ditch  and  filled  it. 
He  now  has  three  good-sized  and  good-shaped  fields  where 
there  were  7  small,  irregular  fields.  Figure  85  shows  the 
present  condition.  He  plans  to  extend  field  6  into  the 
pasture  so  that  it  will  be  as  long  as  5,  as  there  is  some  good 
land  in  the  pasture.     Fields  7  and  8  are  still  in  bad  shape. 

It  will  take  a  number 
of  years  yet  before  the 
farm  is  all  straight- 
ened up. 

This  rate  of  devel- 
opment may  sound 
slow,  but  this  is  the 
way  to  do  such  work. 
It  should  be  done  at 
odd  times.  The  owner 
started  on  the  farm  with  only  money  enough  to  make  a 
small  payment.  During  the  ten  years  he  has  paid  for  the 
place  and  incidentally  made  these  and  many  other  im- 
provements. 


Fig.  86., —  A  neglected  fence  line. 


FARM  LAYOUT 


381 


Fig.  87.  —  Clearing  up  a  fence  and  brush 
line  so  that  two  fields  may  be  worked 
together. 


On  another  farm  where  cost  accounts  were  kept,  it 
required  183  man  hours  and  102  horse  hours  to  clear  and 
plow  a  hedgerow  121  rods  long.  About  half  of  it  was 
small  brush.  The  other  half  was  thorn-apple,  brush,  and 
some  fairly  large  trees. 
There  were  also  about 
20  loads  of  stone.  At 
20  cents  an  hour  for 
labor  and  30  cents  for 
a  team,  this  work  cost 
$51.90,  or  43  cents  per 
rod.  About  90  square 
rods  of  land  were 
gained,  worth  $70  per 
acre,  or  S39.  The  real 
cost  of  the  improve- 
ment   was.    therefore, 

only  about  $13.     The  time  saved  in  working  the  larger 
field  would  pay  this  cost  in  a  year  or  two. 

Another  hedgerow  on  this  farm,  that  was  probably 
35  years  old  and  contained  some  large  trees  and  more  stone, 
cost  80  cents  a  rod.  The  land  gained  paid  about  half  the 
cost. 

On  this  same  farm,  an  old  apple  orchard  was  removed. 
The  trees  were  about  75  years  old  and  a  foot  and  a  half  in 
diameter.  This  work  required  8  hours  of  man  labor  and 
4  hours  of  horse  labor  per  tree.  About  2  pounds  of  dyna- 
mite were  used  per  tree.  The  labor,  dynamite,  fuse,  and 
caps  cost  $2.59  per  tree. 

An  enlarged  view  of  one  of  the  farms  in  Figure  82  is 
in  Fig.  88.  This  is  a  farm  of  100  acres  and,  except  for 
the  public  road,  it  could  all  be  worked  in  one  field.  There 
are  no  physical  obstacles.     Fields  9  and  12  were  the  first 


882 


FABM  MANAGEMENT 


Fig.  88.  —  Layout  of  a  100-acre  farm. 


Fig.  89.  —  Farm  in  Figure  88  rearranged  for  efficient  use. 


FARM  LAYOUT 


383 


fields  cleared.     They  are  a  little  drier  and  warmer  soils 
than  the  remainder  of  the  farm.     They  happened  to  be 


Fig.  90.  —  Layout    of  a  farm  in  a  hilly  country. 

laid  out  cornerwise  of  the  farm.  This  fact  seems  to  have 
determined  the  layout  of  all  the  other  fields.  For  seventy 
years,  these  small,  irregular  fields  have  continued,  because 
in  any  particular  year 
it  was  easier  to  let 
them  alone  than  to 
change.  Figure  89 
shows  how  such  a 
farm  would  look  if 
rearranged  for  con- 
venience. This  farm 
is  so  easy  to  rearrange 
that  a  few  years  would 
pay  the  entire  cost  of 

making    the     change.    Fig.  9 1. —  Showing  how  the  farm  in  Figure 
With  the  old  arrange-        ^O  could   be  combined  with  a  neighbor's 

ment,  to  plow  all  the 


^*--. 


farm  to  make  a  fairly  good  layout. 


fields  in  this  farm  with  a  14-inch  plow  required  12,514 
turns  at  the  ends  of  fields.  The  new  arrangement  requires 
5270  turns. 


384 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


In  Figure  90  is  showni  the  layout  of  a  farm  in  a  hilly  re- 
gion. This  farm  has  about  36  acres  of  good  bottom  land 
and  56  acres  of  hillside  pasture,  creek,  and  woods.  Not 
only  are  the  fields  too  small  and  irregular,  but  the  farm  is 
s 


Fig.  92.  —  Layout  of  a  farm 
the  south.' 


Fig.  93.  —  Proposed  rear- 
rangement of  farm  shown 
in  Figure  92. 


too  small  for  a  profitable  business.  There  is  about  2j  miles 
of  fence  in  the  lane  and  pasture.  This  fence  has  some- 
thing like  50  corner  posts  where  the  fence  changes  direc- 
tion. The  entire  pasture  would  not  rent  for  enough  to 
pay  for  keeping  up  a  good  woven  wire  fence  of  this  length. 
There  is  considerable  other  fence  on  the  farm. 

Joining  this  farm  is  another  even  worse  farm.     Neither 
of  the  farms  has  been  profitable  for  a  generation,  but  if 

1  Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  I,  p.  146. 


FARM  LAYOUT 


385 


the  two  were  combined,  they  would  make  a  profitable 
farm,  as  shown  in  Figure  91.  Other  farmers  in  this  region, 
with  such  a  farm  as  this  combination  would  make,  are 
almost  invariably  doing  well. 

The  layout  of  a  southern  farm  is  illustrated  in  Figures 
92  and  93,  and  a  proposed  rearrangement,  when  tile  drains 
take  the  place  of  the  terraces. 


PASTURES   AND    FENCES 

236.  Construction.  —  The  important  point  in  a  fence  is 
the  corner  posts.  Wherever  a  permanent  fence  is  re- 
quired, such  posts  should  be  set  deeply  —  usually  4  feet 
deep,  and  be  well  braced.  The  other  posts  should  always  be 
driven  from  a  wagon, 
unless  there  is  some 
condition  that  makes 
this  impossible. 

It  rarely  pays  to  use 
trees  for  posts.  The 
trees  grow  around  the 
wire  and  ruin  the 
fence.  It  is  very  diffi- 
cult to  remove  wire 
from  trees.  Occasionally,  it  pays  to  use  a  tree  for  a 
corner  post,  because  this  saves  so  much  work,  but  rarely,  if 
ever,  does  it  pay  to  use  trees  elsewhere. 

Another  exceedingly  important  point  in  fence  construc- 
tion is  to  leave  the  staples  projecting  far  enough,  so  that 
they  can  l)e  readily  pulled  with  a  staple  puller  when  a  post 
is  to  })e  changed  (jr  tlie  wire  removed.  Driving  tlu^  staples 
too  far,  as  is  the  common  practice,  also  injures  the  wire. 

237.  Lanes  should  be  wide  enough  to  furnish  some  pas- 

2c 


Fig.  94.  —  The  corner  posts  arc  the  weak 
point  in  a  fence. 


386 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


ture  rather  than  so  narrow  as  to  be  muddy  or  dusty  roads. 
Stock  is  also  likely  to  be  injured  in  narrow  lanes  by  fight- 
ing.    The  width  of  the  lane  depends  on  the  value  of  the 

land  and  amount  of 
stock  in  the  pasture, 
but  should  rarely  be 
less  than  2  to  4  rods. 
238.  Permanent  pas- 
tures vs.  rotated  pas- 
tures.—  Permanent 
pastures  require  much 
less  work  and  much 
less  fence.  Rotated 
pastures  usually  carry 
more  stock  per  acre. 
Light  soils  do  not  usu- 
ally hold  grass  well  and 
so  do  best  if  rotated. 
As  land  becomes  more 
valuable,  it  may  pay 
to  rotate  pastures.  In 
all  parts  of  the  United 
States  where  permanent  pastures  do  well,  the  farmers  gen- 
erally use  some  of  the  poorer  land  for  pastures  rather  than 
pasture  in  rotation.  The  permanent  pasture  may  at 
times  be  supplemented  by  pasturing  fields.  There  is  no 
very  important  dairying  or  live-stock-producing  section 
in  America  that  does  not  depend  primarily  on  permanent 
pastures,  or  pastures  that  last  many  years.  In  the  north- 
eastern fourth  of  the  United  States,  Kentucky  blue-grass 
is  the  great  pasture  plant.  In  the  arid  regions,  the 
native  grasses  furnish  pasture  on  land  that  is  too  dry  to 
farm. 


-  ^^^H^H 

i^^HIHH' 

i^'^'^^^H 

^^^^K 

^^^^^^^^1 
^^^^^H 

^^^^H^iJ  ^^^^^^^t^ 

ir^^H 

HH 

^^^^1 

m^ 

^HH^fl^B 

H^H  ^^VfS 

^^^^1^1 

^^^B^MhI 

^^^^H 

^IH'i^^H 

^HHH^H 

Fig.  95.  —  A  tree  makes  an  unsatisfactory 
post.  The  wire  spoils  the  tree  and  the 
tree  spoils  the  fence. 


FARM  LAYOUT 


387 


239.  Field  fences.  —  If  there  is  a  permanent  pasture 
on  the  farm,  it  rarely  pays  to  fence  the  fields.  If  the 
fields  are  pastured  in  rotation,  it  may  pay  to  fence  them. 

There  are  many  objections  to  fenced  fields.  The  fences 
prevent  the  easy  adjustment  of  field  lines  to  changed  con- 
ditions. It  is  often  desirable  to  change  the  size  of  fields. 
Adjoining  fields  can  sometimes  be  worked  as  one  if  there 
is  no  fence. 

In  hauling,  and  other  work,  much  time  is  often  saved  by 
being  able  to  go  across  the  fields.  If  fenced,  one  must  go 
around  to  the  gate. 

The  fence  lines  cause  more  or  less  waste  land.  On  one 
farm  the  area  of  untilled  land,  including  that  on  both  sides 
of  the  fence,  was  found  to  be  as  follows  :  — 


Width  of  Waste 
Land 

Rods  of  Fence  to 
Waste  an  Acre 

Rail  fence 

Barbed  wire 

Board 

Woven  wire 

9  ft.  8  in. 
4  ft. 

3  ft.  8  in. 
3  ft.  7  in. 

273 
660 
720 
737 

If  land  is  worth  $100  per  acre,  the  land  wasted  would 
be  worth  59  cents  a  rod  along  a  rail  fence,  and  22  cents 
along  a  woven  wire  fence. 

Not  only  is  there  much  actual  untilled  land,  but  the  crops 
are  injured  along  a  fence  by  turning,  and  considerable  is  lost 
in  harvesting.  The  actual  loss  is  probably  double  what 
the  above  figures  indicate. 

The  fence  line  also  makes  a  harbor  for  weeds  and  other 
crop  pests. 

In  the  eastern  third  of  the  United  States,  a  fence  line 
must  be  mowed  by  hand  every  year  or  it  will  grow  up  to 


388  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

brush  and  trees.  This  mowing  is  a  very  expensive  opera- 
tion. With  small  fields,  it  not  infrequently  takes  a  man  as 
long  to  mow  the  fence  line  as  to  mow  the  field  with  a  mow- 
ing machine. 

If  the  fields  are  fenced,  stock  is  almost  certain  to  be 
turned  on  at  times  when  the  land  is  likely  to  be  injured. 

The  aftergrowth  and  stubble  that  is  saved  by  pasturing 
is  not  all  lost  if  left  on  the  land.  It  serves  as  green  manure 
to  help  to  keep  up  the  humus  supply. 

The  cost  of  up-keep  of  fences  is  much  more  than  is 
commonly  supposed. 

To  offset  all  the  above  points  is  the  time  of  putting  up 
and  taking  down  fences,  if  fields  are  to  be  pastured.  Com- 
paratively few  farmers  have  all  the  fields  fenced. 

Unless  the  fields  are  pastured  much  more  than  is  usual, 
it  will  pay  better  to  take  down  fences  and  put  up  when 
needed,  rather  than  keep  the  fields  fenced.  Sometimes 
it  is  cheaper  to  herd  the  stock. 

THE    FARMSTEAD 

240.  Location  of  farmstead.  —  If  possible,  the  farm- 
stead should  be  located  so  that  it  will  be  convenient  to  the 
fields,  as  indicated  in  the  previous  discussion.  The  ideal 
place  for  the  buildings  is  on  a  slight  elevation  sufficient  to 
secure  good  drainage,  but  not  high  enough  to  make  haul- 
ing difficult.  It  is  desirable  to  have  a  dry  soil  around  the 
buildings  in  humid  regions. 

The  farmstead  should  be  so  laid  out  that  the  work  can 
be  done  without  loss  of  time.  The  garden  should  be  near 
the  house.  The  barns  and  water  should  be  conveniently 
located.  The  barns  should  be  at  least  100  feet  from  build- 
ings in  which  there  is  a  fire,  otherwise  the  insurance  rates 
are  usually  about  twice  as  high. 


FARM  LAYOUT  389 

^\Tien  the  land  lies  on  both  sides  of  the  road,  the  barn 
should  l)e  back  of  the  house,  rather  than  across  the  road 
in  front  of  the  house.  The  space  between  the  house  and 
the  barn  should  be  the  farmer's  private  yard.  The  barn 
and  necessary  accompaniment  of  more  or  less  machinery 
does  not  make  a  desirable  front  view.  But  wholly  aside 
from  appearances,  it  is  very  undesirable  to  have  automo- 
biles going  between  the  house  and  barn.  Chickens  and 
stock  are  much  more  likely  to  be  injured,  or  cause  injury. 

The  farm  is  a  home  as  well  as  a  business.  The  farmstead 
should  be  an  attractive  place.  The  necessary  piles  of 
lumber  and  other  miscellaneous  material  should  be  kept 
behind  the  barn  or  trees,  so  that  the  space  between  the 
house  and  barn  will  be  a  pleasant  place.  It  is  the  farmer's 
front  yard. 

241.  The  farmyard.  —  The  first  essential  for  an  at- 
tractive farmyard  is  neatness.  After  this,  a  little  atten- 
tion to  planting  will  accomplish  the  rest.  Nothing  is 
more  attractive  than  a  good  lawn ;  add  to  this  a  few  trees 
and  shrubs  and  flowers,  and  nearly  any  farmyard  will  be 
attractive.  The  shrubs  should  be  planted  in  groups  in 
the  corners,  around  the  house,  and  to  serve  as  screens  to 
shut  off  undesirable  views.  Scattered,  aimless  planting  is 
not  effective.  Flower  beds  should  also  be  placed  at  the 
sides  and  in  corners,  so  as  to  keep  the  center  of  the  lawn 
open.  Such  an  arrangement  is  not  only  attractive,  but 
it  also  makes  the  care  of  the  lawn  much  easier.  See  Figure 
96.  At  the  same  time,  over  planting  should  be  avoided. 
The  farmyard  should  not  be  a  pattern  of  city  properties, 
unless  it  is  the  country  home  of  some  city  man  who  is  able 
to  hire  a  gardener  to  take  care  of  it.  The  farm  home 
should  be  attractive,  but  not  ostentatious. 

Flowers  are  often  best  raised  in  the  garden.     The  lawn 


390 


FAliM  MANAGEMENT 


should  be  as  open  as  possible,  and  not  so  large  but  that 
it  can  be  mowed  without  too  much  work.  Figure  97 
shows  a  drawing  that  is  marked,  "  Good  example  of  a 
planting  plan  "  in  a  bulletin  on  "  Planning  and  Adorning 
the  Farmstead."  This  plan  is  20  rods  square.  The 
bulletin  does  not  state  how  much  more  land  there  is  in  the 


Fig  96.  —  A  well-laid-out  lawn. 


farmstead.  The  barns  are  somewhere  in  the  distance  not 
on  the  plan.  To  take  care  of  this  elaborate  yard  of  2| 
acres  would  keep  one  man  busy  most  of  the  time.  No 
such  plan  has  any  place  on  a  farm.  It  is  designed  for  a 
rich  man's  home  whore  a  gardener  is  kept.  The  plans 
made  by  landscape  architects  nearly  always  call  for  too 
much  work.  The  farmer  must  take  care  of  the  yard  at 
odd  times,  usually  after  a  hard  day's  work.  Such  plans 
are  usually  too  artificial  to  put  out  in  the  country  where 
things  are  plainer  than  in  cities.  They  are  too  much  like 
a  dress  suit  in  a  hunting  camp.  But  there  are  some  under- 
lying principles  that  a  farmer  needs  to  apply. 


FARM  LAYOUT 


391 


The  factory  laborer  can  care  for  a  larger  yard.  He  has 
worked  indoors  all  day.  Some  outdoor  work  is  a  change. 
But  after  a  farmer  has  cultivated  corn  all  day  or  has  been 
in  the  hay  field,  he  is  not  looking  for  the  sort  of  a  change 
that  a  lawn  mower  brings.  The  grass  in  the  yard  grows 
fastest  just  when  the  weeds  grow  fastest  in  the  corn  field. 
For  farmers  of  moderate  means,  the  yard  to  mow  with  a 


Fig.  97.  —  A  layout  adapted  to  a  country  place,  but  too  elaborate  for 

a  farmer. 

lawn  mower  should  not  be  over  \  acre.  Sometimes  a  large 
lawn  is  mown  with  a  mowing  machine,  but  the  smaller 
area  is  usually  more  satisfactory. 


THE  GARDEN 


242.    Arrangement  of  the  garden.  —  The  crop  from  a 
vegetable  garden  of  one-half  acre  at  the  University  of  Illi- 


392  FABM  MANAGEMENT 

nois  had  an  average  value  of  $105  for  five  years.  During 
this  time,  the  average  expense  for  seeds,  insecticides,  and 
labor  was  $30.^  Every  farmer  should  have  a  family  orchard 
and  a  garden,  not  only  for  pleasure,  but  for  the  profit  that 
results  from  a  saving  on  living  expenses. 

A  good  layout  for  a  farm  garden  is  shown  in  Figure  98. 
The  particular  crops  will  vary  with  the  region,  but  the 
principle  is  the  same  everywhere. 

The  long-lived  plants,  like  grapes,  raspberries,  black- 
berries, gooseberries,  currants,  rhubarb,   and  asparagus, 


.   Plowed  Areex 

pldsfited   in 
rows  3>$^ 
_  ^e&t  expert. _ 


5itrdvvy  berries 8ft 

Ae)pcxroga6 &'(^- 

Khubcxrb Gooseber'-iftS         C  urr<xnTfi  8ft- 

.  Rf\g)pbeme5 8?t. 

R<^9>pberl-iB9^     '  blo^ckbernes  _  gff. 

'         RUr.  kbp.rnea 8?  • 

Gr^xpeP) -OU- 


Fig.  98.  —  A  farm  garden  laid  out  for  convenience  in  working. 

should  be  planted  in  long  rows  on  one  side  of  the  garden. 
These  rows  should  be  6  to  10  feet  apart.  While  they  are 
young,  a  row  of  vegetables  should  be  raised  between  them. 
Such  plants  as  raspberries  and  blackberries  should  be  con- 
fined to  solid  rows  about  2  feet  wide.  This  allows  for  reg- 
ular horse  cultivation.  Strawberries  and  other  shorter 
lived  plants  should  come  next.     The  land  that  is  to  raise 

I  Illinois,  Bulletin  105. 


FARM  LAYOUT  393 

vegetables  can  then  be  plowed  in  one  block  every  year. 
This  strip  can  be  planted  from  one  side.  The  land  for  the 
later  planting  can  then  be  kept  harrowed  until  it  is  planted. 
Interplanting  of  small  fruits  and  trees  is  very  inadvisable 
unless  land  is  very  limited,  because  more  work  is  required. 

If  all  perennials  are  at  one  side,  the  remainder  of  the 
garden  will  be  straight  for  plowing.  The  rows  of  vege- 
tables should  be  at  least  two  and  one-half  feet  apart  to  allow 
for  continued  cultivation  with  a  horse  or  team.  Cultiva- 
tion should  be  so  frequent  that  weeds  will  never  get 
started.     In  this  way,  little  hand  labor  will  be  required. 

The  soil  should  be  generously  manured.  It  is  not  prof- 
itable to  raise  so  valuable  a  crop  on  poor  land.  If  any  crop 
is  short  of  manure,  let  it  be  the  cheapest  crop. 

The  garden  and  orchard  should  contain  every  kind  of 
fruit  and  vegetable  that  will  grow  in  the  region  and  that 
the  family  likes.  There  should  be  enough  varieties  to 
cover  the  season.  The  season  may  be  prolonged  by  bring- 
ing vegetables  into  the  cellar.  Full-grown  green  tomatoes 
may  be  kept  for  about  two  months  by  wrapping  them  in 
paper.  Watermelons  will  keep  some  time.  Celery  may 
be  transplanted  to  the  cellar  and  kept  watered.  It  will 
then  grow  new  shoots  that  are  of  the  finest  quality.  If  one 
becomes  interested,  he  will  find  many  ways  of  adding  to 
the  usefulness  and  pleasure  of  the  garden. 

A  small  hotbed,  perhaps  four  by  eight  feet,  will  grow 
several  crops  of  lettuce  and  radishes  and  also  plants  for 
.the  garden.  A  hotbed  is  a  simple  affair.  Old  boards  may 
be  used  to  make  a  tight  frame,  which  is  about  24  inches 
deep  on  the  north  and  18  inches  deep  on  the  south.  This  is 
filled  with  firmly  tramped  horse  manure  that  is  just  be- 
ginning to  heat.  It  is  covered  with  about  six  inches  of 
good  soil,  and  is  then  ready  for  the  window-sash.     Before 


894 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


making  such  a  hotbed,  one  would  do  well  to  buy  the  sash 
and  make  the  bed  to  fit  it. 
See  also  pages  23  and  38. 


FARM    BUILDINGS 

243.  Relation  of  buildings  to  the  farm.  —  All  the  farm 
buildings  should  be  in  keeping  with  the  farm.  One  should 
not  build  an  expensive  house  on  a  cheap  farm.  If  an 
expensive  house  is  desired,  a  good  farm  should  be  bought 
on  which  to  put  it.  The  same  principle  holds  in  cities. 
It  is  very  unwise  to  build  an  expensive  house  on  a  cheap 
lot,  or  a  cheap  house  on  an  expensive  lot. 

The  barns  should  be  in  keeping  with  the  amount  and 
quality  of  the  land.  One  should  be  very  sure  that  he  is 
going  to  use  the  buildings  for  many  years  before  he  builds 


Fig. 


99.  —  Too  many  buildings  for  a  190-acre  farm,   hence  they  are  in 
poor  repair. 


a  larger  barn  than  the  farmers  of  the  community  usually 
desire  for  the  farm  in  question.  Some  of  the  money  wisely 
invested  in  farm  buildings  is  usually  lost  in  selling  a  farm, 
but  if  the  farm  is  over-built,  the  loss  is  heavy. 

There  seems  to  be  little  consideration  given  to  this 
relationship.  As  the  country  grows  older,  the  number  of 
places  with  too  many  or  too  expensive  buildings  increases. 
One  does  not  need  to  travel  far  in  any  old  country  to  find 
examples  of  very  expensive  farm  buildings  neglected  and 
out  of  repair,  because  too  expensive  for  the  farm  to  carry. 


FARM  LAYOUT 


395 


One  should  consider  the  matter  very  carefully  before  he 
puts  up  buildings.  A  delay  of  a  year  or  two  is  better  than 
a  serious  mistake.  A  mistake  in  permanent  buildings  is  a 
mistake  that  lasts  more  than  a  lifetime.  It  passes  on 
to  the  next  generation.     So  long  as  a  farmer  spends  his 


In.  inn  A  set  of  barns  that  cost  $600  for  each  animal  housed.  At 
least  six  times  too  expensive.  Too  large  for  the  farm.  Poor  con- 
struction, as  the  low,  many-gabled  roofs  allow  little  storage  room  and 
are  very  expensive  to  maintain. 


energy  and  money  in  raising  crops  he  usually  has  little 
to  regret. 

Two  thousand  years  ago  Cato  gave  advice  on  this  sub- 
ject that  is  just  as  good  and  just  as  much  needed  to-day  as 
it  was  when  he  wrote  it.  "  In  his  youth  the  farmer  ought 
diligently  to  plant  his  land,  but  he  should  ponder  before 
he  builds.  Planting  does  not  require  reflection,  but  de- 
mands action.  It  is  time  enough  to  build  when  you  have 
reached  your  thirty-sixth  year,  if  you  have  farmed  your 
land  well  meanwhile.  When  you  do  build,  let  your 
buildings  be  proportioned  to  your  farm,  and  your  farm  to 
your  buildings.     It  is  fitting  that  the  farm  buildings  be 


396 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


well  constructed,  that  you  should  have  ample  storage 
room,  so  that  you  can  wait  for  high  prices,  something  which 
will  redound  to  your  honor,  your  profit,  and  your  self- 
respect."  ^ 

Cato  is  also  quoted  as  advising  to  buy  what  others  have 
built  and  thus  "  enjoy  the  fruits  of  another's  folly."  This 
a;?ain  is  good  advice  to-day. 

244.  Capital  in  buildings.  —  Very  little  can  be  said 
about  the  proportion  of  the  capital  to  be  invested  in 
buildings,  because  the  prices  of  land  and  lumber  change 
so  frequently. 

It  is  said  that  the  city  worker  ought  not  to  spend  over 
20  per  cent  of  his  salary  in  rent.  Ordinarily  not  over  10 
to  20  per  cent  of  the  capital  should  be  invested  in  the 
farmhouse. 

Barns  for  stock  should  rarely  cost  over  .^50  for  each  1000- 
pound  animal  housed.     In  the  South,  this  cost  should  be 


Fig.   101.  — An  expensive  brick  henhouse  that  the  hens  can  never  pay 
for.     It  would  take  5  dozen  eggs  per  hen  per  year  to  pay  her  house  rent. 


much  less.     This  cost  includes  materials  and  all  labor. 
Money  invested  in  a  barn  would  not  be  looked  upon  as  a 

'Cato's  Farm  Manag?m,;nt,  tr.xnslatjd  by  a  "Virginia  Farmer." 


FARM  LAYOUT  397 

very  attractive  investment  if  it  did  not  pay  at  least  8  to 
10  per  cent  a  year.  This  amount  has  to  cover  interest, 
repairs,  depreciation,  insurance,  and  taxes.  If  one  in- 
vested $1000  in  a  dairy  barn  to  house  20  cows,  the  annual 
rent  that  the  cows  should  pay  would  be  $80,  or  $4  per  cow. 
If  butter  sells  for  30  cents  a  pound,  this  would  require  13 
pounds  of  butter  from  every  cow  to  pay  her  barn  rent.  In 
many  parts  of  the  United  States  the  barns  cost  less  than 
$50  for  each  cow  or  horse. 

Nearly  all  persons  from  the  cities  who  go  to  farming 
invest  too  much  in  farm  buildings.  There  are  many  cases 
where  the  barns  and  milk  rooms  cost  as  much  as  $1000 
for  every  cow  housed.  Each  cow  ought  to  pay  $80  a  year 
for  the  privilege  of  living  in  such  a  palace.  These  cow- 
palaces  are  often  built  by  misguided  wealthy  men,  who  feel 
that  they  are  building  a  barn  that  is  to  be  a  model  for 
farmers. 

But  farmers  are  far  from  free  from  the  same  error  of  over- 
investment. Many  times  a  farmer  finds  that  he  has 
money  enough  to  build  a  new  barn  and  starts  out  to  outdo 
his  neighbors,  regardless  of  whether  his  farm  would  justify 
such  a  barn  or  not. 

The  cost  of  a  henhouse  ought  not  to  exceed  $1  per  hen. 
If  a  comfortable  house  can  be  built  for  less,  so  much  the 
better.  This  cost  would  make  the  yearly  charge  about  10 
cents  per  hen. 

There  are  also  many  cases  in  which  too  little  money  is 
invested  in  buildings. 

245.  Arrangement  for  convenience.  —  Even  more  im- 
portant than  the  capital  invested  in  buildings  is  the  ar- 
rangement for  saving  labor.  The  average  farmer  makes 
more  mistakes  in  this  than  in  over-capitalization.  Farm 
buildings  are  put  up  at  different  times,  and  usually  without 


398 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


any  definite  plan.  On  any  particular  day,  it  is  easier  to 
do  the  chores  as  the  buildings  stand  than  it  is  to  rearrange 
them,  hence  they  go  on  generation  after  generation.  On 
one  of  the  most  profitable  dairy  farms  that  the  writer 
knows,  the  milk  house  where  the  milk  is  strained  is  so  far 


Fig.   102.  —  The  dairy  barn  on  the  farm  given  on  page  537.     Over  75 
years  old,  but  serviceable  and  economical.     See  Figure  103. 

from  the  cows  that  the  total  distance  walked  in  milking 
20  cows  is  over  a  mile  a  day. 

The  problem  on  the  vast  majority  of  farms  is  not  the 
building  of  new  houses  and  barns,  but  the  rearrangement 
of  old  ones  so  as  to  make  the  work  easier. 

246.  Rearrangement  of  buildings.  —  Prices  and  other 
agricultural  conditions  change  so  freciuently  that  it  is  often 
desirable  to  build  on  a  plan  that  allows  for  possible  changes 
in  the  type  of  farming.  In  the  Northeastern  States,  a 
barn  34  or  36  feet  wide  is  a  desirable  width.  Such  a  barn 
is  wide  enough  for  two  lines  of  cows.     It  will  make  a  good 


FARM   LAYOUT 


399 


horse  barn  and  provide  for  one  row  of  stalls  and  a  row  of 
box  stalls.  It  is  a  good  width  for  a  henhouse  or  ma- 
chinery storage.  If  a  barn  is  narrower  than  this,  ic  does  not 
give  room  for  two  lines  of  cows.  If  wider,  it  makes  the 
work  of  mowing  away  the  hay  too  great. 

The  critical  points  in  a  building  are  the  roof  and  founda- 
tions.    Paint  is  usually  more  emphasized   because  it  is 


Fig.  103. 


-  Cows  in  the  barn  shown  in  Figure  102.     The  capital  is  in- 
vested in  the  stock  rather  than  in  the  building. 


more  conspicuous,  but  it  is  the  roof  and  foundations  that 
really  limit  the  life  of  buildings. 

247.  The  farmhouse.  —  The  type  of  house  that  is 
suited  to  the  city  is  wholly  out  of  place  in  the  country. 
The  superabundance  of  gables  and  striking  shapes  may  not 
be  conspicuous  in  a  city,  but  in  the  country  they  give  an 
appearance  of  lack  of  dignity.  A  house  that  is  to  stand 
alone  must  have  strong  lines. 


400 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


City  houses  are  almost  always  too  tall  to  look  well  if 
standing  alone.  When  flanked  by  equally  tall  neighbors, 
they  may  look  better  than  low  buildings,  but  when  set  off 
by  themselves  the  appearance  is  entirely  changed.      It  is 

much  like  a  forest  tree 
that  appears  well  sur- 
rounded by  tall  trees, 
but  that  looks  like  an 
exclamation  point 
when  standing  by  it- 
self. 

There  are  certain 
good  types  of  houses 
that  always  look  well. 
The  latest  fashions  are 
soon  out  of  tlate.  The 
farmhouse  should  be 
built  in  a  style  that 
always  looks  well.  One 
builds  a  house  for  50 
or  100  years,  not  for  a 
season  only. 

Nearly  everything 
about  a  farmhouse  should  be  entirely  different  from  a  city 
house.  This  is  the  reason  Avhy  architects'  plans  are  nearly 
always  out  of  place  on  a  farm.  Such  plans  are  usually  for 
city  conditions.  The  fees  for  planning  farmhouses  are  not 
large  enough  to  attract  architects  to  study  the  problem. 

The  back  door  of  the  farmhouse,  or  the  side  door,  is  the 
chief  entrance.  Most  persons  who  come  to  the  house  go 
to  the  back  door,  because  this  is  where  the  people  are  work- 
ing. The  back  door  should,  therefore,  be  as  good  as  the 
front  door.     The  farm  activities  center  in  the  back  part 


1 

|, 

M 

■^~™i  -1 1 

'k 

'/- 

Bm^BJ  "il 

1 

1 

Fig. 


104.  —  A  city  house  in  the  country. 
It  is  too  tall  to  look  well. 


FARM  LAYOUT  401 

of  the  house,  in  the  back  yard,  and  at  the  barn.  The  back 
yard  should  be  an  attractive  place. 

The  farmhouse  should  provide  storage  room.  The  farm 
family  does  not  depend  on  a  half  dozen  deliveries  a  day. 
The  cellar  must  provide  storage  not  only  for  products  for 
home  use,  but  usually  for  products  to  sell.  Very  rarely 
does  a  city  home  provide  a  place  where  a  barrel  of  apples 
can  be  kept  without  spoiling. 

The  first  floor,  the  cellar,  and  the  fuel  shed  should  all  be 
handy,  as  these  are  the  center  of  operations.  The  back 
door  should  be  near  the  ground  so  that  there  will  be  few 
steps  to  climb. 

There  should  be  a  place  in  the  back  part  of  the  house  for 
men  to  wash.  If  the  farm  has  running  water  and  sewage 
flisposal,  there  should  be  a  wash  room  in  the  back  part  of 
th<>  house  on  the  first  floor.  It  is  also  desirable  to  have  a 
bathroom  on  the  second  floor. 

The  second  floor  of  the  farmhouse  is  usually  used  for 
sleeping  rooms.  The  outdoors  is  so  much  a  part  of  the 
house  that  there  would  be  too  much  going  up  and  down 
stairs,  if  the  second  floor  were  used  for  any  other  purpose. 

Since  household  help  is  hard  to  secure,  and  since  the  farm 
family  usually  has  to  do  its  own  work,  all  arrangements 
for  saving  work  are  of  great  importance.  It  is  usually 
desirable  to  use  the  same  room  for  a  dining  room  and 
living  room.  The  majority  of  farmhouses  also  have  this 
same  room  for  a  kitchen,  but  a  separate  kitchen  is  pre- 
ferred if  it  can  be  afforded,  on  account  of  the  heat  in 
summer. 

R?:fkkences 
U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  Bulletin  236. 
Cyclopedia   of    American   Agriculture,    L.    H.    Bailey,    Vol.    I, 
pp.   142-101,  Vol.  II,  pp.  90-97. 
2d 


CHAPTER   14 
CROPPING    SYSTEMS 

Rotation  of  crops  means  that  the  crops  grown  on  each 
field  are  changed  from  time  to  time  in  a  fairly  regular  way. 
Practically  every  farmer  does  change  crops  occasionally  on 
at  least  part  of  his  farm,  but  the  changes  are  often  more  or 
less  haphazard.  There  are  many  fields  in  America  that 
have  been  in  cotton,  corn,  or  wheat  for  10  to  50  years.  As 
the  country  grows  older,  the  enemies  of  crops  increase,  and 
the  need  for  rotation  becomes  more  apparent.  The  ma- 
jority of  farmers  will  ultimately  come  to  use  more  or  less 
definite  rotations. 

The  advantages  of  having  a  variety  of  crops  are  often 
confused  with  the  advantages  of  crop  rotation.  There 
are  many  reasons  why  diversified  farming  pays  best. 
Some  of  these  are  given  in  Chapter  3.  But  one  may  have 
a  diversity  of  crops  and  yet  not  do  much  rotating  of  crops. 
There  are  many  farmers  who  grow  corn,  alfalfa,  and 
wheat,  but  who  do  not  do  much  rotating. 

248.  Reasons  for  crop  rotation.  —  There  are  many 
reasons  why  crop  rotation  is  a  good  thing.  The  final 
factor  that  forces  farmers  to  change  crops  is  usually 
either  weeds,  insects,  or  diseases.  Crop  rotation  (1)  helps 
to  control  these  enemies ;  (2)  may  provide  for  keeping 
up  the  humus  supply  of  the  soil ;  (3)  may  provide  for  the 
growth  of  grass  and  legumes  on  each  field ;  (4)  often 
saves  labor ;  (5)  may  keep  the  land  occupied  with  crops 
0  greater  part  of  the  time ;    (6)  allows  for  the  alternation 

402 


CROPPING   Si'STEMS  403 

of  deep  and  shallow-rooted  crops ;  (7)  may  provide  for  a 
balanced  removal  of  plant  food ;  (8)  may  control  toxic 
substances  ;    (9)  systematizes  farming. 

(1)  Nearly  every  crop  is  accompanied  by  certain  weeds 
that  are  able  to  grow  with  it,  but  that  do  not  bother  other 
crops.  The  weeds  that  bother  tilled  crops  are  different 
from  those  that  interfere  with  hay. 

If  small  grain  is  grown  continuously,  the  land  may 
become  very  weedy.  These  particular  weeds  are  usually 
easily  killed  by  cultivation.  Wild  oats  are  a  serious  pest 
in  various  parts  of  Minnesota  and  Dakota.  If  tilled 
crops  are  grown,  they  are  readily  controlled.  Wild  mus- 
tard is  a  very  serious  weed  in  small  grain  in  some  regions. 
Daisies  and  wild  carrot  are  weeds  in  some  regions  where 
hay  is  left  continuously,  but  are  not  bad  weeds  in  corn. 
The  opposite  is  true  of  pig  weeds  and  foxtail. 

Similarly,  there  are  many  diseases  that  injure  one  crop, 
])ut  that  are  not  harmful  to  some  other  crop.  Flax-sick 
soils  are  merely  soils  that  are  infested  with  a  flax  disease ; 
rotation  can  control  it.  Potato  scab  may  become  serious 
if  this  crop  is  grown  on  the  same  land  year  after  year. 

The  same  principle  holds  for  insect  pests.  The  corn 
root  worm  and  root  louse  often  force  rotation.  Nearly 
all  of  the  insect  enemies  of  crops  are  checked  to  some 
extent  by  crop  rotation.     Many  of  them  are  controlled. 

(2)  If  crops  are  not  rotated,  the  fields  that  are  con- 
stantly in  tilled  crops  will  soon  have  their  humus  supply 
seriously  decreased.  Small  grain  crops  bring  the  same 
result,  but  less  rapidly.  All  the  serious  results  that 
follow  the  exhaustion  of  the  humus  then  follow.  This  is 
most  disastrous  in  the  Southern  States,  where  cotton  is 
the  chief  crop.  The  land  is  usually  cultivated  for  a  long 
season.     This,  together  with  the  hot  weather,  favors  the 


404  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

rapid  destruction  of  humus.  The  clovers  and  grass  crops 
usually  increase  the  humus.  The  control  of  weeds,  in- 
sects, and  fungi,  and  the  maintenance  of  the  humus 
supply  are  the  chief  reasons  for  rotating  crops. 

(3)  If  crops  are  rotated,  the  other  benefits  that  come 
from  growing  legumes  and  grass  may  be  secured  for  each 
field. 

(4)  Labor  is  often  saved  by  crop  rotation.  Grasses 
are  sown  in  small  grain,  so  that  one  fitting  of  the  land 
does  for  two  crops.  In  some  parts  of  the  country  winter 
wheat  is  sown  after  potatoes  or  beans,  so  that  one  plowing 
of  the  soil  does  for  three  crops  — •  the  tilled  crop,  the  wheat 
crop,  and  the  grass  crop  seeded  in  the  wheat.  In  most 
of  the  Middle  West,  oats  are  disked  or  cultivated  in  on 
corn  ground  without  plowing.  In  some  parts  of  this  region, 
the  yields  are  better  on  disked  than  on  plowed  land.  In 
other  parts,  plowing  is  lietter.  Cowpeas  may  be  grown 
between  the  rows  of  corn  without  additional  fitting  of 
the  soil. 

(5)  By  crop  rotation,  the  land  may  be  occupied  more  of 
the  time.  Wheat  may  follow  oats  and  grass  follow  wheat, 
so  as  to  keep  the  soil  in  use.  If  the  season  is  long  enough, 
it  is  possible  to  grow  more  than  one  crop  a  year. 

(6)  Deep  and  shallow  rooted  crops  may  be  alternated, 
thus  making  use  of  the  deeper  soil. 

(7)  Formerly  it  was  thought  that  the  chief  reason  for 
rotating  crops  was  because  plants  use  the  plant  foods  in 
different  proportions,  so  that  when  the  soil  became  ex- 
hausted for  one  crop,  it  might  contain  the  kind  of  foo<l 
that  the  other  crop  required.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the 
increased  yields  resulting  from  rotation  cause  the  removal 
of  more  of  each  kind  of  food  than  is  removed  by  the 
smaller  yields  that  are  secured  if  one  crop  is  grown  con- 


CROPPING    SYSTEMS  ,  405 

tinuously.     However,  the  fact  that  plants  use  foods  in 
different  proportions  may  be  of  some  importance. 

(8)  It  is  thought  by  some  persons  that  each  plant  gives 
off  certain  substances  through  its  roots  that  are  injurious 
to  the  plant,  but  that  may  not  harm  another  crop.  If  the 
theory  is  tru(%  it  furnishes  another  reason  for  rotation. 

(9)  Crop  rotation  systematizes  farming.  It  makes 
farming  less  complex  rather  than  more  so.  It  ma}^  re- 
quire considerable  study  to  get  a  rotation  established, 
because  the  fields  may  need  to  be  rearranged,  and  one  of 
the  new  fields  may  have  several  kinds  of  crops  to  be 
adjusted.  Usually  a  cropping  system  simplifies  the  farm 
layout  and  reduces  the  number  of  fields  on  the  farm.  See 
Figures  88  and  89. 

249.  Characteristics  of  a  good  cropping  system.  — 
There  are  a  number  of  things  that  a  crop  rotation  should 
provide  if  possible  :  — 

(1)  The  area  of  each  crop  should  be  nearly  the  same  year 
after  year,  unless  there  is  a  definite  reason  for  changing  it. 

(2)  The  rotation  ought  ordinarily  to  provide  an  abun- 
dance of  roughage  and  pasture  for  the  number  of  animals 
kept.  The  cost  of  handling  such  bulky  .products  as  hay, 
straw,  silage,  and  roots  is  too  great  if  these  are  bought 
from  other  regions. 

(3)  It  is  very  desirable  that  the  rotation  include  one 
tilled  crop  for  the  elimination  of  weeds. 

(4)  It  is  very  desirable  that  the  rotation  include  a  sod. 
A  sod  is  favorable  for  the  fixation  of  nitrogen  and  the 
increase  of  the  humus  supply.  If  the  sod  includes  clover 
or  alfalfa,  the  fixation  of  nitrogen  is  further  favored  by  the 
legume. 

(5)  The  rotation  and  feeding  system  should  in  some  way 
provide  for  keeping  up  the  organic  matter  of  the  soil. 


406  FAliM  MA  y  AG  EM  EN  T 

Fertilizers  may  be  used  to  supply  plant  food,  but  the 
farm  must  grow  its  own  organic  matter,  unless  hay, 
straw,  or  manure  are  purchased. 

(6)  The  rotation  should  provide  as  large  an  area  of  the 
most  profitable  cash  crop  or  crops  as  can  be  cared  for. 
Nearly  every  region  has  one  crop  that  pays  better  than 
any  other  for  the  time  spent  on  it.  In  the  Northeastern 
States,  it  is  hay.  In  the  Middle  West,  corn.  In  the 
northern  and  western  part  of  the  Middle  West,  wheat. 
In  the  South,  cotton.  In.  each  case,  the  farmers  desire 
to  grow  as  many  acres  as  possible  of  the  profitable  crop, 
hence  the  tendency  to  one-crop  systems. 

A  cropping  system  for  the  Northeastern  States  should 
grow  as  much  hay  as  possible,  because  this  is  the  most 
profitable  cash  crop  for  the  labor  involved.  In  the  Central 
West,  there  should  be  as  much  corn  as  possible.  In  the 
South  there  should  be  as  much  cotton  as  possible. 

Scientific  men  are  likely  to  underestimate  the  impor- 
tance of  the  farmer's  experience.  The  crop  that  the  farmer 
persists  in  growing  as  a  single  crop  should  not  be  reduced 
too  much. 

Even  on  a  dairy  farm  in  the  South,  it  is  usually  advis- 
able to  grow  as  much  cotton  as  the  labor  can  cultivate, 
because  this  is  such  a  profitable  crop.  A  dairy  farm  in 
Illinois  should  grow  as  much  corn  as  the  men  and  horses 
can  possibly  care  for,  because  it  is  so  profitable  as  a  cash 
crop,  or  as  hog  feed.  The  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  or 
New  England  farmer  should  raise  all  the  hay  his  men 
and  horses  can  harvest,  even  though  his  main  business 
may  be  dairying,  poultry,  or  fruit.  In  each  of  the  above 
regions,  the  most  successful  farmers  follow  this  practice. 

250.  Crop  rotations  used  in  different  regions.  —  The 
actual  practice  in  most  parts  of  the  cotton  belt  is  to  grow 


CROPPING   SYSTEMS  407 

cotton  almost  continuously.  It  is  rotated  more  or  less 
with  corn,  and  other  crops.  This  system  fails  to  provide 
stock  food  and  fails  to  provide  for  keeping  up  the  humus 
supply  of  the  soil. 

A  highly  recommended  rotation  that  has  not  yet  come 
into  general  use  is  :  — 

First  year,  cotton. 

Second  year,  corn  with  cowpeas  between  the  rows. 

Third  year,  oats  followed  by  cowpeas. 

This  rotation  makes  the  area  that  a  family  can  farm 
practically  three  times  as  great  as  when  nothing  but  cotton 
is  grown.  A  family  can  raise  all  the  cotton  that  it  can 
pick  and  by  properly  organizing  the  work,  raise  the  other 
crops  besides.  This  requires  that  two-  and  three-horse 
teams  be  used. 

In  the  winter  wheat  belt  of  Kansas  and  Nebraska, 
wheat,  corn,  alfalfa,  and  oats  are  the  most  profitable 
crops.  In  the  drier  parts  of  the  region,  wheat  does  much 
better  than  the  other  crops,  and  the  area  of  these  is  re- 
duced or  almost  eliminated.  It  is  difficult  to  provide  a 
very  satisfactory  rotation  with  these  crops,  because 
alfalfa  is  a  long-lived  plant  and  because  wheat  does  not 
follow  corn  readily,  and  the  area  of  oats  desired  is  usually 
less  than  the  area  of  corn.  The  practice  of  some  of  the 
])est  farmers  •  usually  provides  a  rather  long  and  some- 
what indefinite  rotation.  Corn  may  be  grown  on  the 
same  land  for  two  years  and  sometimes  a  little  longer. 
It  is  followed  by  oats  one  year.  The  oats  are  followed 
by  wheat.  The  wheat  continues  several  years.  It  is 
then  followed  by  alfalfa  that  is  left  several  years. 

In  the  northern  part  of  the  spring  wheat  region  of  the 
Dakotas  and  Minnesota,  good  rotations  have  not  yet 
been  generally  adopted.     The  most  profitable  cash  crops 


408  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

are  wheat,  barley,  oats,  and  flax.  All  these  are  spring 
planted  crops.  As  the  farming  is  becoming  more  diversi- 
fied, more  corn  and  hay  are  being  grown.  These  provide 
a  good  rotation.  In  regions  where  the  crops  do  well, 
corn  or  potatoes  may  be  followed  by  several  years  of 
small  grain  crops,  and  these  followed  by  timothy  and 
clover.  This  may  leave  half  or  more  of  the  land  in  small 
grain  and  yet  provide  a  good  rotation  and  provide  for 
the  keeping  of  live-stock. 

In  the  corn-belt,  a  very  satisfactory  rotation  is :  corn 
two  years,  followed  by  oats  in  which  timothy  and  clover  are 
seeded.  If  the  grass  is  left  one  year,  half  of  the  land  may 
be  kept  in  corn,  or  the  grass  may  be  left  longer,  if  desired. 

The  farmers  in  the  Northeastern  States  usually  raise 
corn,  potatoes,  cabbage,  or  other  tilled  crops  on  sod. 
These  are  usually  followed  by  oats.  In  most  of  the  re- 
gion, timothy  and  clover  are  seeded  with  the  oats.  In 
some  parts,  the  oats  are  followed  by  wheat  in  which  grass 
is  seeded.  In  either  case,  the  grass  is  left  as  long  as  it  is 
good.  This  is  generally  three  or  four  years.  The  first 
year  of  grass  is  mixed  clover  and  timothy.  The  later 
years  are  mostly  timothy.  The  standard  rotation  of  all 
this  region  is  a  tilled  crop  followed  by  one  or  two  years 
of  small  grain,  and  this  followed  by  about  three  years  of 
hay.  This  is  a  region  of  many  kinds  of  farming,  and  there 
are  many  variations,  but  the  above  is  the  rotation  on  the 
majority  of  farms. 

There  is  not  room  to  give  many  of  the  multitudes  of 
rotations  that  have  proved  satisfactory  in  different  regions. 
For  a  very  extended  list  of  rotations  used  or  recommended 
for  different  regions  in  this  and  other  countries,  see 
"  Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,"  Vol.  II,  pp.  99 
to  109, 


CROPPING    SYSTEMS  409 

Nearly  all  farmers  will  want  to  vary  the  rotation  from 
time  to  time  as  prices  and  other  conditions  change.  It  is 
not  often  desirable  to  follow  an  absolutely  fixed  system 
year  after  year.  The  example  of  England  is  often  cited 
as  a  region  where  farmers  have  fixed  rotations,  but  this 
is  not  the  case.  The  farmers  of  England  vary  the  areas 
from  year  to  year  and  change  the  rotation  to  meet  changes 
in  prices  of  products.  The  farmers  in  the  Northeastern 
States  i^robably  have  about  as  definite  rotations  as  do 
thos(^  in  England. 

In  the  South  and  in  the  new  regions  of  the  United 
States,  very  much  more  attention  should  be  given  to 
crop  rotation. 

251.  Two  rotations  on  one  farm.  —  Many  farmers  use 
more  than  one  crop  rotation.  Potato  growers  often  grow 
potatoes  in  a  three-year  rotation  of  potatoes,  small  grain, 
clover ;  and  at  the  same  time,  use  a  longer  rotation  on 
other  i^arts  of  the  farm.  A  rotation  of  corn,  small  grain, 
and  hay,  making  a  five-  or  six-year  rotation,  is  often  used 
for  the  other  land.  The  two  rotations  often  change  fields, 
so  that  a  field  is  sometimes  in  one  of  the  rotations  and 
sometimes  in  the  other. 

In  the  bean-growing  section  of  New  York  and  Michi- 
gan, the  beans  are  usually  grown  in  a  rotation  of  beans, 
wheat,  and  hay.  The  same  farms  often  have  another 
rotation  of  corn,  oats,  wheat,  and  hay.  The  two  sj^stems 
are  usually  worked  in  together,  so  that  a  field  is  sometimes 
in  one  and  sometimes  in  the  other  rotation. 

In  tobacco-growing  sections,  tobacco  is  often  grown  in 
a  very  short  rotation  on  the  richest  land,  and  the  remainder 
of  the  farm  used  for  a  longer  rotation  with  general  farm 
crops. 

Often  it  is  desirable  to  have  a  rotation  on  small  fields 


410 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


near  the  barns,  that  is  independent  of  the  main  farm  ro- 
tation. This  may  be  to  provide  pasture  for  hogs  or 
sheep,  to  grow  root  crops,  or  other  minor  crops.  (See 
Figure  105.) 

252.  Fixed  cropping  systems  with  irregular  acreages. 
—  It  is  not  ahvays  desirable  to  grow  exactly  the  same  area 
of  each  crop  year  after  year,  because  prices  and  other 
conditions  are  too  changeable.     On  the  other  hand,  the 


I/VHC/9T 


O^TS 


/9/s-wffGir 

/9/7-6^ASS 
/9r9-COffN 


^^^^ 


:5i 


/9/i>-   G/r/iss 
/9/6  -   G/f/ISS 
/9/7  -  G/f AT/AT 
/9ie  -  CORN 
/9/9  -  WH£/ir 


/9/S-  Gff/^SS 
/9/6  -  G/T/^/A/ 
/9/7  -  COffN 

19/8-  w»eAr 

/3I9  -  Gffi^SS 


/9/S-  G/M/A/ 

/9/^-coe/v 
/9/7-  w/ie^r 

/9/g-  GRASS 
/9/9-  G/r^ss 


/9/S-  COR/I/ 
/9/6-  WH£i^T 
/9/7  -  GR/ISS 
/9/a  -  GRASS 
/9/9  -  GRA/A/ 


Fig.  105.  —  A  Minnesota  farm  and  proposed  rearrangement.  Two 
rotations  are  given.  One  near  the  barn  for  hog  pastures  and  one  for 
the  general  crops.' 

variations  in  areas  on  many  farms  are  without  any  definite 
reason. 

If  one  wishes  fixed  areas,  it  is  not  necessary  that  the 
same  area  of  each  crop  be  grown,  A  fixed  rotation  can 
usually  be  arranged  with  any  area  desired.  Suppose  that 
a  farmer  desires  to  raise  46  acres  of  hay,  35  of  oats,  12  of 
corn,  and  15  of  potatoes,  he  would  proceed  as  follows  in 
order  to  see  what  his  best  field  arrangement  and  rotation 
would  be :  — 


1 U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  Bulletin  236. 


CROPPING   SYSTEMS 


411 


He  will  grow  108  acres  of  crops  each  year.  If  he  divides 
the  area  into  three  fields  of  36  acres  each,  he  might  use 
the  following  rotation  and  arrangement :  — 


Field 

1912 

1913 

1914 

[  12  A.  corn 

1          ... 

15  A.  potatoes 
[    9  A.  hay 

36  A.  oats 

36  A.  hay 
[  12  A.  corn 

2        ... 

36  A.  oats 

36  A.  hay 
12  A.  corn 

]  15  A.  potatoes 
[    9  A.  hay 

3       ... 

36  A.  hay 

15  A.  potatoes 
9  A.  hay 

36  A.  oats 

The  poorest  27  acres  in  the  hay  field  is  plowed  up  each 
year  for  corn  and  potatoes.  The  remaining  9  acres  is  left 
for  hay. 

The  next  year  oats  are  planted  on  all  of  this  field. 
The  area  in  sod  should  be  fall  plowed  in  order  to  get  a 
good  oat  crop  on  this  part.  Timothy  and  clover  are 
seeded  with  the  oats. 

The  third  year  this  field  is  in  clover  and  timothy  hay. 

Each  field  follows  this  same  rotation,  so  that  there  is 
always  the  same  area  of  each  crop.  There  are  always 
two  large  fields,  and  every  year  one  field  is  divided  into 
three  parts.  This  gives  one  acre  too  much  of  oats  and 
one  too  little  of  hay.  If  this  is  not  satisfactory,  one  acre 
of  oats  may  be  cut  for  hay,  or  one  acre  of  oat  and  pea 
hay  may  be  grown. 

The  same  crops  might  be  grown  in  a  four-year  rotation 
on  four  fields  of  27  acres  each. 

A  field  of  hay  is  plowed  up  for  corn  and  potatoes. 
The  next  year  this  is  sown  to  oats  and  19  acres  of  the 
field  is  seeded  to  clover  and  timothy.     The  remaining  8 


412 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


acres  is  planted  to  oats  again  the  next  year,  and  is  then 
seeded. 


Field 

1913 

1913 

1914 

1915 

1      .      . 

I  12  A.  corn 
1  15  A.  pota- 
[      toes 

27  A.  oats 

1  19  A.  hay 
1    8  A.  oats 

27  A.  hay 

2    .    . 

27  A.  oats 

1  19  A.  hay 
1    8  A.  oats 

27  A.  hay 

[  12  A.  com 
15  A.  pota- 
[      toes 

8    .    . 

1  19  A.  hay 
1    8  A.  oats 

27  A.  hay 

'  12  A. corn 
15  A.  pota- 
toes 

27  A.  oats 

4    .    . 

27  A.  hay 

[  12  A. corn 
15  A.  pota- 

[      toes 

27  A.  oats 

j 19  A.  hay 
1   8  A.  oats 

The  most  important  differences  between  this  and  the 
three-year  rotation  are  that  part  of  the  oats  are  grown 
after  oats  rather  than  after  hay.  Most  of  the  com  and 
potatoes  are  grown  on  a  two-year-old  rather  than  a  one- 
year-old  sod.  The  oats  are  in  two  separate  patches  each 
year  rather  than  in  one  large  field.  Usually  the  three- 
year  rotation  will  be  preferred. 

In  a  similar  manner,  a  rotation  may  be  planned  for 
almost  any  acreage  that  may  be  desired,  by  trying  three, 
four,  five,  six,  or  more  fields  and  the  corresponding  rota- 
tions, and  picking  the  best  one. 

253.  Combining  separate  fields  for  crop  rotation.  — 
If  the  farm  is  composed  of  fields  that  cannot  be  thrown 
together,  the  problem  can  ordinarily  be  solved. 

The  following  is  an  example  from  a  much-cut-up  farm, 
showing  how  the  operator  arranged  the  fields  for  a  five- 
year  rotation.  In  the  farm  there  were  seven  fields,  no 
two  of  which  could  be  thrown  together,  as  they  were  sepa- 
rated by  public  roads,  streams,  or  other  obstacles. 


CROPPING   SYSTEMS 


413 


Before  the  rearrangement  was  made,  the  fields  were  as 
follows :  — 


Field 

Area  and  Crop 

1 

1 12  oats  not  seeded  with  grass 
1   6  clover 
30  hay 

2 

3 

9  hay 

4 

12  hay 

5 

j 10  corn 

1   9  wheat  seeded  to  grass 
5  hay 

6 

7 

12  hay 

The  total  area  is  105  acres.  This  would  make  five 
areas  of  exactly  21  acres.  Field  1,  and  3  acres  of  6, 
made  one  of  the  new  fields.  The  balance  of  6  and  5 
made  another.  Number  2  made  one.  The  balance  of 
2  and  7  made  one ;   3  and  4  made  one  new  field. 

The  land  had  formerly  been  farmed  as  9  separate 
fields.     The    new    arrangement    leaves    the    number    of 


New 
Field 

Old 

Field 

Condition                      j,          Yfar 
Spring  First  Year  i            l-iRST  Year 

Second 
Year 

1  .      . 

2  .     . 

3  .     . 

4  .     . 

5  .     . 

l 1-18  A. 
1&-  3  A. 

2-21  A. 
f2-  9  A. 
1 7-12  A. 
|3-  9  A. 
14-12  A. 

J  5-19  A. 
16-  2  A. 

1 12  A.           oat 
,     stubble 
1    6  A.  clover 
i   3  A.  timothy 
Timothy 

Timothy 

Timothy 

f  10  A.        corn 
stubble 
6  A.  wheat 
[   2  A.  timothy 

Oats 

Corn 
Timothy 

Timothy 

[  10  A.  oats  seeded 

6  A.  wheat 
[   2  A.  oats  seeded 

Wheat 

Oats 
Corn 

Timothy 
Clover 

414  FylRM  MANAGEMENT 

separate  pieces  the  same,  because  the  old  fields  2  and  6 
are  both  divided.  The  table  shows  how  the  rotation 
of  corn,  oats,  wheat,  and  two  years  of  hay  could  then  be 
started.  By  the  end  of  the  second  year  the  rotation  is 
fully  established.     It  is  not  always  so  quickly  done. 

254.  Relation  of  cropping  and  feeding  systems.  —  The 
cropping  and  feeding  systems  naturally  go  together.  The 
variety  of  such  systems  makes  a  discussion  of  them  very 
difficult.  Usually  the  farm  should  provide  abundant 
pasture  for  the  stock  kept,  or,  stated  another  way,  no 
more  stock  should  ordinarily  be  kept  than  can  be  pa,s- 
turcd.  The  stock  and  stock  products  produced  on 
pasture  are  the  cheapest  gains. 

Usually  the  cropping  system  provides  all  the  pasture 
and  roughage  for  stock.  It  is  usually  desirable  to  raise 
most  of  the  grain  fed,  except  in  the  Northeastern  States 
and  other  regions  where  cash  crops  may  pay  enough 
better  to  make  it  profitable  to  buy  grain  rather  than  raise 
it. 

A  horse  or  mule  usually  eats  about  three  tons  of  hay 
or  equivalent  in  a  year,  and  about  100  bushels  of  oats  or 
equivalent.  Pasture  may  reduce  the  hay.  In  much  of 
the  country,  it  is  cheaper  to  replace  half  or  all  of  the  oats 
with  corn.  About  70  bushels  of  corn  is  usually  fed. 
The  amount  varies  with  the  work  and  other  feeds.  Before 
one  can  do  much  figuring  on  such  problems  he  must 
find  out  the  practice  of  the  community. 

In  fairly  intensive  dairy  sections,  in  regions  north  of 
Washington,  cows  usually  eat  about  one  ton  of  grain, 
one  ton  of  hay,  and  4  tons  of  silage,  or  2^  tons  of  hay  if 
silage  is  not  fed.  Again  these  amounts  are  exceedingly 
variable.  Some  farmers  feed  very  little  grain  and  get 
most  of  the  milk  in  summer. 


CROPPING   SYSTEMS  415 

It  is  usually  considered  that  about  7  sheep  eat  as  much 
as  a  cow. 

Well-fed  hens  eat  a  little  more  than  twice  as  much  for 
their  weight  as  do  other  farm  animals.  The  common 
estimate  of  a  bushel  of  wheat  or  equivalent  for  a  hen  a 
year  is  not  far  from  correct.  If  only  a  few  hens  are  kept, 
a  large  part  of  this  may  be  picked  up  around  the  farm. 

References 

Farm  Management,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bureau  Plant  Industrj% 
Bulletin  236. 

Planning  a  Cropping  System,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bureau  Plant 
Industry,  Bulletin  102,  Part  III. 

Laboratory  Exercises  in  Farm  Management,  Warren  and  Liver- 
more,  pp.  20-27. 


CHAPTER   15 

MARKETING    FARM    PRODUCTS 

Very  much  is  said  about  the' marketing  of  farm  prod- 
ucts, and  yet  there  is,  perhaps,  no  subject  on  which  really- 
helpful  advice  for  the  individual  farmer  is  so  lacking. 


Fig.   106. 


-  Faneuil  Hall  market,  Bustuii.     The  historic  Faneuil  Hall  in 
the  background  overlooks  a  busy  market  place. 


The  reason  appears  to  be  that  marketing  is  so  much  a 
community  or  public  question  that  there  is  little  that  the 
individual  can  do. 

416 


MARKETING   FARM  PRODUCTS 


417 


The  marketing  of  fruit,  high-priced  stock,  and  other 
specialties  is  almost  as  important  as  good  management  of 
the  farm.  The  marketing  of  staple  products  is  an  easier 
problem. 

TIME    TO    SELL    PRODUCTS 

255.  Cost  of  holding  products.  —  If  products  are  held 
for  higher  prices,  the  prices  received  must  be  high  enough 
to  cover  interest,  insurance,  shrinkage,  pay  for  storage 
room,  and  extra  cost  of  handling. 

The  interest  and  insurance  can  be  determined  in  any 
community.  The  extra  cost  of  handling  depends  primarily 
on  how  conveniently  the  storage  is  arranged.  It  varies 
from  no  cost  to  a  very  high  percentage  of  the  value  of 
the  product.  Some  helpful  information  is  available  on 
shrinkage  and  prices  in  different  months. 

256.  Shrinkage  of  farm  products.  —  The  shrinkage  of 
ear  corn  stored  in  cribs  on  8  successive  years  at  the  Iowa 
Experiment  Station  is  shown  in  Table  78. 

Table  78. — ^  Shrinkage  of   Eak   Corn  Stored  in   Cribs   at 
Ames,  Iowa.    Average  of  8  Years 


November 
December . 
January  . 
February  . 
March  .  . 
April  .  . 
May  .  . 
June  .  . 
July  .  . 
August 
September 
October 


Total  Shrinkage 
TO  Date 


or/ 
■^  /O 

9 
5 

8 
7 
8 
7 
3 
3 
8 
2 
2 


Average  for 
the  Month 


5.2% 
1.7 

.6 

.3 
1.9 
3.1 
1.9 
l.() 
1.0 

.5 

.4 

.0 


2b 


418  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

On  a  farm  in  Kansas,  16,155  bushels  of  corn,  70  pounds 
to  the  bushel,  was  weighed  as  it  came  from  the  field 
during  the  husking  season.  It  was  weighed  again  in  July 
when  it  was  sold,  and  weighed  14,896  bushels.  This  is  a 
shrinkage  of  7.8  per  cent. 

A  number  of  tests  in  Illinois  showed  a  range  of  shrink- 
age of  12  to  20  per  cent  during  the  first  year.  This  was 
for  corn  husked  in  October  and  early  November. 

From  the  results  in  Iowa,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  shrink- 
age is  very  rapid  when  first  stored.  There  is  little  de- 
crease in  weight  during  the  winter,  but  a  heavy  shrinkage 
when  hot  weather  comes  on. 

Average  figures  on  shrinkage  of  corn  must  be  used  with 
judgment,  because  the  condition  of  the  corn  at  the  time 
of  storage  is  so  variable,  and  because  the  weight  depends 
so  much  on  the  weather.  During  damp  weather,  corn 
absorbs  moisture  so  that  it  gains  in  weight.  In  one  case 
in  the  Illinois  tests,  a  crib  of  corn  gained  3  per  cent  during 
a  wet  week  in  March. 

The  shrinkage  is  also  dependent  on  the  number  of  rats 
and  mice  that  one  is  raising.  In  parts  of  the  South,  the 
loss  due  to  the  grain  moth  is  exceedingly  heavy. 

All  the  examples  of  shrinkage  are  for  ear  corn.  The 
cob  shrinks  relatively  more  than  the  grain,  so  that  if 
corn  is  sold  shelled,  the  shrinkages  here  given  are  a  little 
too  large. 

Wheat,  oats,  barley,  and  rye  shrink  comparatively 
little  after  the  grain  has  gone  through  the  "  sweat  " 
either  in  the  stack  or  in  the  bin.  When  stored  in  large 
elevators,  the  shrinkage  is  estimated  to  be  about  1^  per 
cent  in  six  months.  The  chief  source  of  shrinkage  on  the 
farm  is  the  grain  eaten  by  rats  and  mice. 

Well-cured  hay,  as  it  is  ready  to  go  to  the  barn,  usually 


MARKETING    FARM   PRODUCTS  419 

loses  from  10  to  15  per  cent  in  weight  by  the  time  it  has 
gone  through  the  "  sweat."  Sometimes  the  loss  is  less 
than  5  per  cent,  and  sometimes  it  is  over  20  per  cent. 
Clover  and  alfalfa  usually  lose  more  than  timothy. 

After  hay  has  passed  through  the  "  sweat,"  it  loses 
very  little.  After  this  time,  if  damp  weather  follows  dry 
weather,  it  will  often  gain  in  weight. 

H.  W.  Gilbertson  reported  eight  cases  in  which  from 
7  to  15  tons  of  baled  hay  were  stored  from  one  to  three 
months.  The  dates  of  baling  varied  from  October  1  to 
December  22.  The  average  time  stored  was  61  days. 
The  total  amount  of  hay  in  the  eight  lots  was  185,038 
pounds.  The  total  loss  from  shrinkage  and  shattering 
was  2264  pounds,  or  1.2  per  cent.  Most  of  the  lots  were 
timothy,  but  some  were  clover  and  timothy  mixed.  It 
is  evident  tiiat  there  is  very  little  shrinkage  of  hay  after 
it  is  dry  enough  to  bale. 

There  is  more  loss  from  shattering  than  from  shrink- 
age. GiU)ertson  also  reported  the  losses  from  shrinkage 
and  shattering  on  18  car  loads  of  hay  shipped  to  New 
York  by  one  dealer.  The  hay  was  baled  at  different 
times  during  the  year,  and  came  from  different  farms. 
The  total  weight  in  the  barns  at  time  of  baling  was  399,378 
pounds.  The  average  time  of  storage  was  73  days.  The 
loss  from  shrinkage  and  shattering  in  hauling  and  ship- 
ping and  errors  in  weights  was  15,533  pounds,  or  nearly 
4  per  cent. 

On  20  other  car  loads,  the  loss  from  shattering  and  errors 
in  weights  amounted  to  an  average  of  nearly  1  per  cent. 

Potatoes  shrink  by  loss  of  water  from  the  individual 
potatoes,  b^'  loss  of  adhering  dirt,  by  freezing,  and  rot. 
On  only  the  first  of  these  are  figures  of  any  general  value. 
The  other  shrinkages  apply  to  individual  cases  only. 


420  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

The  shrinkage  by  evaporation  varies  greatly.  If 
stored  in  a  warm,  dry  cellar,  the  shrinkage  from  this  cause 
may  be  as  much  as  20  per  cent.  If  stored  in  a  cool,  moist 
cellar,  the  evaporation  is  much  less.  When  buried  in 
pits,  the  loss  from  this  source  is  usually  small. 

Farmers  and  managers  of  potato  exchanges  usually 
expect  a  loss  of  10  per  cent  when  potatoes  are  stored  in 
quantity  and  kept  till  April.  Occasionally,  the  losses  are 
very  small,  and  in  a  very  few  instances,  potatoes  have 
been  stored  several  months  without  any  loss.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  loss  may  be  very  much  above  10  per  cent. 
With  the  best  storage  conditions,  a  loss  of  5  per  cent  is 
very  good.  With  fairly  good  conditions,  10  per  cent  is 
to  be  expected. 

Sound  apples  in  cold  storage  shrink  very  little,  usually 
not  over  1  to  5  per  cent.  When  stored  in  a  cellar,  the 
loss  is  usually  much  more.  The  loss  from  rot  of  apples 
is  usually  much  more  than  the  loss  from  evaporation. 

257.  Prices  of  products  in  different  months.  —  Table 
84  gives  the  average  prices  of  some  farm  products  by 
months  for  ten  years.  New  corn  is  usually  not  ready  to 
sell  until  December.  Using  the  Chicago  price  of  No.  2 
corn,  and  the  Iowa  tables  of  shrinkage,  what  will  one 
make  by  holding  corn  for  the  July  market,  so  as  to  get 
the  higher  price?  The  shrinkage  from  December  1  to 
July  1  was  7.6  per  cent.  If  one  has  1000  bushels  of  corn 
on  December  1,  he  would  have  924  bushels  on  July  1. 
The  comparative  receipts  at  average  prices  would  be :  — 

December  1,  1000  bushels  at  r)2.9i .^529 

July  1,  924  bushels  at  60.5^ 559 

Gain  by  holding $  30 

On  the  average,  it  appears  that  one  might  expect  to 
receive  $30  more  by  holding  for  the  high  price.    This 


MARKETING   FARM  PRODUCTS  421 

must  cover  interest,  insurance,  and  storage.  This  is 
enough  to  pay  these  costs. 

But  there  are  yet  other  problems  to  be  considered.  If 
corn  is  sold  and  hauled  during  the  winter  months,  the 
work  can  be  done  when  it  will  not  interfere  with  farm 
work.  This  point  is  usually  enough  to  offset  any  gain 
from  holding. 

How  much  one  needs  the  money  must  also  be  con- 
sidered. 

Sometimes  more  pounds  per  bushel  are  required  when 
corn  is  very  green.  It  rarely  pays  to  sell  under  this 
condition.  Elevators  do  not  want  corn  that  is  too  wet 
to  ship.  When  they  buy  such  corn,  they  find  some  way 
of  cutting  the  price  very  heavily,  either  directly  or  by 
taking  more  pounds  for  a  bushel.  It  rarely  pays  to  sell 
until  a  product  is  fit  to  be  handled  by  shippers. 

If  a  farmer  is  carrying  considerable  stock,  it  is  very 
desirable  to  hold  some  corn  until  July.  If  prospects  are 
good  for  a  crop,  it  can  then  be  sold  ;  if  not,  it  can  be  kept. 
In  years  when  corn  is  very  high,  it  is  usually  best  not  to 
do  much  of  this  holding.  In  years  when  corn  is  low,  it 
pays  to  hold  for  feed  or  for  sale. 

In  selling  live-stock,  it  sometimes  pays  to  plan  to  have 
the  stock  ready  at  the  season  of  high  prices.  This  is 
particularly  true  of  horses.  Carriage  horses  are  usually 
very  low  in  the  fall  and  high  in  the  spring.  A  farmer  who  is 
raising  such  horses  can  winter  them  cheaper  than  they  can 
be  wintered  in  town,  so  that  he  makes  money  by  holding. 

Draft  horses  are  highest  in  the  spring.  They  have  a 
second  slight  rise  in  price  in  the  late  fall,  probably  when 
horses  are  being  purchased  for  winter  teaming  in  cities. 
It  usually  pays  a  farmer  best  to  sell  draft  horses  in  the 
spring.     The  fall  seems  to  be  the  second  best. 


422  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

In  determining  when  to  sell  products,  farmers  should 
make  careful  studies  of  reports  of  prices  given  in  agricul- 
tural and  daily  papers  and  government  crop  reports.  The 
Crop  Reporter  is  of  great  value  in  studying  crop  conditions. 
This  is  sent  free  on  request  by  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.C 

258.  Conclusions  on  the  best  time  to  sell.  —  It  is  evi- 
dent that  the  higher  prices  received  for  products  held  are 
just  about  enough  to  cover  shrinkage  and  interest  and 
storage  costs. 

This  is  to  be  expected  when  one  stops  to  consider  how 
prices  are  fixed.  The  prices  offered  in  the  large  storage 
centers  represent  the  average  opinions  of  men  who  are 
constantly  studying  the  supply  and  demand.  These  men 
use  every  available  source  of  information  and  make  the 
business  a  life  study.  If  prices  are  not  as  high  as  the 
future  demand  is  likely  to  warrant,  there  is  a  great  demand 
for  products  to  store.  This  demand  comes  from  manu- 
facturers as  well  as  speculators.  Such  a  demand  tends 
to  raise  the  price  until  the  profits  from  storage  are  reduced. 
If  prices  are  considered  too  high,  storage  is  checked  and 
prices  fall.  The  price  offered  for  wheat  is  the  consensus 
of  opinion  of  farmers,  millers,  warehouse  owners,  and 
speculators  as  to  the  present  and  probable  future  demand 
and  suppl}^  of  this  article.  The  majority  are  not  always 
right.  Often  the  supply  is  not  correctly  estimated  and 
sometimes  war,  panics,  or  periods  of  prosperity  upset  all 
calculations  on  the  demand.  More  frequently,  excep- 
tionally favorable  or  unfavorable  prospects  for  a  succeed- 
ing crop  make  the  prices  wrong.  Occasionally,  a  product 
is  cornered,  but  this  does  not  often  happen.  The  price 
to-day  is  a  better  indication  of  the  price  a  few  months 
from  now  than  is  the  opinion  of  any  one  farmer. 


MARKETING   FARM  PRODUCTS 


423 


i  >^i 

!_^B» 

!\  '^P^^^ 

'-■•  *'.•!'    i 

'f'*^ 

li 

Fig.  107. 


Packing  Colorado  apples.     Only  the  finest  quality  pays  for 
the  long  shipment  to  the  large  markets. 


Since  the  profits  on  holding  products  are,  on  the  aver- 
age, only  interest  and  pay  for  other  costs,  it  follows  that 
other  things  will  usually  determine  whether  it  pays  a 


Fig.  108.  —  Packing  New  York  apples.  The  short  ^in;  ■lijiii  allows  a 
profit  from  a  lower  grade  of  fruit  that  is  produced  with  less  care  and 
cost. 


424  FAUM  MANAGEMENT 

farmer  to  hold  his  products.  The  two  most  important 
factors  are  how  much  the  money  is  needed  and  how  the 
work  of  marketing  fits  in  with  the  other  farm  work.  The 
majority  of  farmers  can  make  better  use  of  the  money 
in  some  other  way.  Sometimes  it  pays  to  hold  products 
to  be  marketed  in  seasons  when  there  is  less  farm  work. 
Very  frequently  the  condition  of  the  roads  overshadows 
all  other  considerations.  The  question  of  storage  on  a 
farm  that  has  good  storage  room  that  would  otherwise  be 
idle  is  very  different  from  the  problem  on  a  farm  where 
such  a  building  must  be  put  up. 

Often  there  is  a  rush  of  marketing  grain  as  soon  as  a 
product  will  do  to  sell,  and  sometimes  before  it  is  ready. 
Such  grain  is  difficult  to  handle  without  spoiling.  It 
sometimes  congests  the  elevators  so  that  there  is  an  ab- 
normally low  price.  When  any  such  condition  arises,  it 
is,  of  course,  desirable  to  hold  the  product. 

Usually  the  need  for  money,  the  pressure  of  farm  work, 
and  the  condition  of  the  roads  determine  the  best  time  to 
sell. 

WAYS    OF    SELLING   PRODUCTS 

259.  Retailing  vs.  wholesaling.  —  There  is  now  very 
much  discussion  about  sending  products  direct  to  the 
consumer.  The  general  farm  products,  as  cotton,  wheat, 
corn,  beef,  wool,  and  pork,  cannot  often  be  so  marketed. 
The  discussion  applies  mostly  to  vegetables,  eggs,  and 
other  perishable  products  that  are  ready  for  food  when 
they  leave  the  farm.  Around  every  town  and  city  there 
are  farmers  who  do  more  or  less  retailing  of  products. 
Sometimes  the  business  is  large  and  profitable,  as  on  some 
farms  that  retail  milk.  But  in  the  great  majority  of 
cases,  the  retailing  is  doue  by  farmers  with  small  farms 


MAEKETING  FAEM  PRODUCTS  425 

and  little  money,  who  do  not  count  their  time  very 
valuable.  Somewhat  higher  prices  are  received  for  the 
products.  The  objection  to  retailing  is  that  the  man  and 
horse  time  are  often  worth  more  than  the  increased  prices 
received.  If  one  has  important  work  to  do  on  the  farm, 
retailing  is  usually  undesirable.  If  there  is  little  to  do  on 
the  farm,  so  that  time  has  a  very  low  value,  retailing  is 
more  likely  to  pay.  If  much  of  a  business  is  being  done 
on  the  farm,  the  owner  is  needed  there  to  manage  the 
work. 

Usually  when  a  man  makes  enough  by  retailing  so  that 
he  can  enlarge  his  business,  he  changes  to  wholesale  and 
sells  his  products  to  the  grocery  stores,  or  ships  them, 
because  he  cannot  afford  to  leave  the  farm  as  much  as  is 
necessary  for  a  retail  business.  Very  rarely  do  we  see  a 
farmer  changing  from  a  wholesale  to  a  retail  business. 

Another  objection  to  retailing  is  that  the  farmer  usually 
has  too  much  or  too  little  of  different  products.  By 
handling  products  through  a  distributing  agency  of  some 
kind,  the  deficiencies  of  different  farms  are  evened  up. 
The  more  direct  marketing  of  farm  products  is  likely  to 
come  about  by  cooperation  rather  than  by  any  great 
increase  in  retail  business.  If  farmers  and  consumers 
were  properly  organized,  consumers'  associations  could 
buy  direct  from  farmers,  or  farmers'  organizations,  and  so 
eliminate  some  of  the  unnecessary  costs  of  handling 
products. 

260.  Selling  on  commission.  —  The  chief  difficulty  in 
selling  on  commission  is  that  the  seller  is  at  the  mercy  of 
the  commission  man.  Goods  should  never  be  sent  to  an 
unknown  commission  man.  Bank  references  should 
always  be  written  to,  in  order  to  see  if  the  dealer  is  re- 
sponsible.    Even   then,   the   risk   is   very   great.     Some 


426  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

states  are  now  advocating  laws  to  control  the  commission 
business.  The  condition  is  now  intolerable.  Like  our 
whole  marketing  system,  it  needs  a  thorough  overhauling. 

261.  Farm  auctions.  —  Farmers  usually  sell  products 
that  are  staple.  For  this  reason,  they  do  not  reaUze  the 
importance  of  advertising  when  the  occasion  demands  it. 
When  one  is  to  have  a  farm  auction,  or  if  he  wishes  to 
sell  equipment  or  stock  at  a  private  sale,  the  advertising 
is  of  great  importance.  Very  rarely  is  a  farm  auction 
properly  advertised.  Farmers  do  not  make  enough  use 
of  papers  or  the  rural  mail  delivery.  In  addition  to  the 
posted  hand  bills,  an  auction  ought  to  be  advertised  in 
each  of  the  papers  of  the  region.  It  is  not  enough  to 
advertise  in  the  paper  that  agrees  with  one  in  politics. 
The  bid  of  a  Democrat  is  just  as  acceptable  as  the  bid  of 
a  Republican  at  a  sale.  The  advertisements  need  not  be 
very  expensive.  A  few  lines  in  the  proper  place  in  each 
paper  will  accomplish  the  purpose.  It  is  also  desirable 
to  get  the  names  of  farmers  from  telephone  books,  asses- 
sors, or  otherwise,  and  mail  each  one  a  sale  bill. 

Only  rarely  are  the  products  at  a  sale  properly  ar- 
ranged. The  essential  thing  is  that  all  the  articles  be  so 
arranged  that  they  can  be  readily  seen  by  all  the  bidders. 
Hogs  in  a  pen  that  is  not  readily  accessible  do  not  sell 
well.  Whenever  possible,  the  arrangement  should  be  such 
that  the  bidders  can  form  a  half  circle  around  the  article. 
A  little  attention  to  these  matters  will  save  many  dollars. 
Nothing  so  reduces  the  desire  to  bid  as  uncertainty  as  to 
what  one  is  bidding  on. 

It  is  well  to  have  a  list  of  cost  prices  of  articles.  These 
may  be  given  out  by  the  owner  or  auctioneer.  Many  a 
bidder  hesitates  because  he  does  not  know  just  what  the 
article  cost  when  new.     Prices  should  be  absolutely  honest ; 


MARKETING  FARM  PRODUCTS  427 

any  attempt  at  deception  is  almost  certain  to  be  detected 
and  result  in  loss. 

Time  spent  in  cleaning  animals  is  well  spent.  A  dirty 
animal  rarely  brings  what  it  is  worth.  Animals  should 
be  in  good  condition.  Farmers  do  not  realize  how  much 
the  fat  on  a  horse  or  cow  sells  for.  So  little  is  this  under- 
stood, that  near  the  larger  cities,  a  good  business  is  done 
in  buying  and  fattening  horses  for  market.  Horses  that 
the  farmer  let  go  in  what  seemed  to  him  good  condition, 
are  bought,  fattened,  and  resold.  The  farmer's  loss  is 
enough  to  cover  the  extra  cost  of  selling  twice  and  a 
profit  for  the  feeder. 

References 

Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  II,  pp.  355-357  (fruit), 

pp.  362-365   (grain);    Vol.   Ill,   pp.   158-162   (Uve-stock) ; 

Vol.  IV,  pp.  239-276. 
Farm  Management,  F.  W.  Card,  pp.  109  to  144. 
Marketing  Farm  Products,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers'  Bulletin 

62. 
Marketing  Live  Stock,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers' Bulletin  184. 
PVuit  Harvesting,  Storing,  Marketing,  F.  A.  Waugh. 
The  American  Apple  Orchard,  F.  A.  Waugh,  pp.  149-181. 
The  Business  of  Dairying,  C.  B.  Lane,  pp.  198-218. 
Market  Hay,  Farmers'  Bulletin  508. 
The  Prices  of  Farm  Products,  Wisconsin,  Bulletin  209. 
The  Marketing  of  Wisconsin  Cheese,  Wisconsin,  Bulletin  231. 
Studies  of  Primary  Cotton   Market  Conditions  in  Oklahoma, 

U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bulletin  36. 


CHAPTER   16 
FARM    RECORDS   AND   ACCOUNTS 

KINDS   OF   ACCOUNTS 

Accounting  is  usually  concerned  with  keeping  track  of 
who  owes  you  and  whom  you  owe.  Probably  these  were 
the  tirst  kinds  of  accounts  that  mankind  learned  to  keep. 
Such  accounts  avoid  mistakes  and  disputes  as  to  how  much 
one  man  owes  another.  They  are  necessary  whenever  much 
business  is  done  on  credit.  It  is  this  kind  of  accounting 
that  is  usually  meant  by  the  term  ' '  bookkeeping, ' '  It  shows 
the  relation  of  the  business  to  outside  persons  or  firms,  or 
may  be  called  external  accounting,  or  personal  accounting. 

Merchants  who  have  a  large  amount  of  this  kind  of 
accounting  are  likely  to  think  that  the  farmer  who  does 
not  keep  such  accounts  is  very  careless,  but  in  many  cases 
the  farmer  does  so  little  buying  or  selling  on  time  that  he 
does  not  need  to  keep  such  accounts. 

262.  Accounting  as  a  means  of  studying  the  business. 
—  But  the  uses  of  accounting  have  now  extended  far  be- 
yond the  mere  recording  of  debits  and  credits.  Men  are 
now  beginning  to  keep  careful  cost  accounts  and  other 
records  of  the  internal  affairs  of  the  business  for  the  pur- 
pose of  learning  how  to  conduct  the  business  more  effi- 
ciently. These  two  kinds  of  accounting  are  entirely 
different.  One  kind  is  a  very  simple  matter  of  arithmetic. 
Nearly  any  person  who  is  accurate  can  make  a  good 
"  bookkeeper,"  but  cost  accounting  is  an  investigation 
into  the  internal  organization  and  management  of  the 
business.     The  keeping  of  such  accounts  involves  a  thor- 

428 


FARM  RECORDS  AND  ACCOUNTS  429 

ough  knowledge  of  the  business.  The  interpretation  of  the 
results  and  their  application  in  the  reorganization  of  the 
business  call  for  the  highest  type  of  business  ability. 
These  two  kinds  of  accounts  are  commonly  confused. 
The  statement  is  frequently  made  that  the  farmer  ought 
to  keep  accounts  as  the  merchant  does,  and  that  he  ought 
to  know  how  much  his  wheat  costs  and  whether  his  cows 
pay.  Such  statements  confuse  bookkeeping  and  cost 
accounting.  The  merchants  keep  personal  accounts,  but 
these  are  nothing  like  cost  accounts.  Farmers  probably 
keep  personal  accounts  as  well  as  city  persons  who  have  the 
same  amount  of  such  accounting  to  do.  The  chief  reason 
why  they  do  so  little  bookkeeping  is  because  they  have  so 
little  to  do.  A  study  of  this  question  in  one  county  showed 
that  47  per  cent  of  the  farmers  kept  some  accounts  of  re- 
ceipts and  expenses.  In  this  same  county,  there  were  two 
farmers  who  kept  accurate  cost  accounts.  Much  over  half 
of  the  population  lived  in  cities  and  villages,  but  few  if 
any  of  the  city  business  men  keep  cost  accounts.  The 
fact  is  that  cost  accounting  is  used  by  very  few  persons 
in  city  or  country,  but  this  method  of  studying  the  busi- 
ness is  rapidly  increasing. 

There  is  very  little  relationship  between  bookkeeping 
and  cost  accounting.  Bookkeeping  is  an  exact  science. 
If  John  Jones  buys  100  pounds  of  sugar  at  6  cents,  and  has 
it  charged,  the  account  is  exactly  $6.  There  can  be  no 
other  answer.  But  cost  accounting  contains  estimates. 
Two  persons  studying  the  same  business  will  not  have  ex- 
actly the  same  results,  although  the  results  ought  to  point 
to  the  same  recommendations  for  the  future  management. 
A  railroad  cannot  determine  what  it  costs  to  haul  freight. 
■By  cost  accounting  methods,  it  can  arrive  at  an  approxi- 
mation of  the  cost. -How  reliable  the  result  is  depends 


430  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

on  how  much  technical  knowledge  of  the  business  the  one 
who  keeps  such  accounts  has.  The  same  road  bed  is  used 
to  carry  passengers,  mail,  express,  and  freight.  In  order 
to  determine  approximately  what  it  costs  to  haul  a  man  or  a 
car  of  coal,  a  very  large  part  of  the  cost  of  railroading  must 
be  more  or  less  arbitrarily  divided  between  these  items. 
The  same  questions  arise  in  all  kinds  of  cost  accounting. 

The  Tariff  Board  tried  to  find  the  cost  of  producing 
wool  "  at  home  and  abroad."  It  had  an  impossible  task. 
The  feed  that  the  sheep  eats  is  used  in  growing  both  wool 
and  meat,  and  sheep  are  only  one  of  a  number  of  enter- 
prises on  most  farms.  The  best  the  Board  could  do  was 
to  make  some  very  rough  guesses  at  the  cost.  The  cost 
of  producing  a  pound  of  pork  cannot  be  exactly  deter- 
mined. If  it  were  determined,  change  in  rainfall,  in  wages, 
land  values,  or  any  one  of  a  hundred  other  items  would 
change  it  next  year. 

Every  farmer  and  every  business  man  makes  some  esti- 
mates of  costs  and  what  things  are  paying  him.  Often 
the  estimate  is  carefully  made  and  is  fairly  accurate. 
More  frequently,  it  omits  many  items  of  expense  and  may 
be  far  wrong  on  others.  -^The  object  of  cost  accounting 
is  to  aid  in  arriving  at  a  more  accurate  estimate.^ 

It  will  be  seen  that  there  is  little  similarity  between 
bookkeeping  and  cost  accounting.  All  attempts  to  apply 
city  methods  of  bookkeeping  to  farm  cost  accounting 
must  fail  as  they  always  have  failed.  <rhe  first  essential 
in  all  cost  accounting  work  is  intimate  knowledge  of  the 
business  and  good  business  judgment. 

There  are  many  other  kinds  of  records  that  are  desirable 
on  some  farms,  such  as  milk  records  of  individual  cows, 
apple  variety  records,  and  other  performance  records, 
feeding  records,   breeding  records,   crop  yields,  weather 


FARM    RECORDS  AND  ACCOUNTS  431 

records,  maps  showing  orchard  plans,  lines  of  tile  drain, 
and  many  other  kinds  of  records. 

ACCOUNTS   WITH   PERSONS   OR    FIRMS 

263.  Object  of  bookkeeping.  —  Whenever  anything  is 
bought  or  sold  on  time,  some  record  should  be  made  of 
the  transaction.  This  will  often  save  money.  It  may 
save  paying  the  bill  twice.  If  accounts  are  not  kept,  the 
bills  have  a  way  of  creeping  up  in  the  most  impossible 
manner.  Even  if  we  cannot  find  any  objection  to  the 
individual  entries,  the  total  often  seems  impossible.  The 
fact  is  that  while  we  have  been  buying  on  time  in  a  happy- 
go-lucky  way,  we  are  tempted  to  buy  much  that  our  re- 
sources do  not  warrant.  Best  of  all,  such  accounts  save 
one's  friends.  Most  of  the  disputes  about  accounts  are 
because  some  one  forgot  rather  than  because  of  dishonesty. 

In  the  cities  and  larger  towns,  a  duplicate  sale  slip  is 
now  given  with  goods.  The  simplest  way  to  keep  accounts 
with  stores  that  give  such  slips  is  to  keep  these  slips.  Some 
large  stores  keep  the  original  slips  for  their  own  accounts, 
and  thus  reduce  the  expense  for  bookkeeping.  Systems 
of  this  kind  are  fast  replacing  the  old  elaborate  bookkeep- 
ing methods. 

264.  Methods  of  bookkeeping.  —  Accounts  for  which 
slips  are  not  made  out  may  be  jotted  down  in  a  memoran- 
dum book,  if  there  are  not  too  many  of  them.  If  many 
such  accounts  are  kept,  it  is  too  hard  to  find  the  account 
with  any  one  man.  It  is  then  more  convenient  to  post 
them  in  a  book  in  which  each  person  or  firm  has  a  page. 
The  debit  or  charge  items,  what  we  pay,  are  put  on  the 
left-hand  page.  The  credit  items,  or  what  we  receive,  are 
put  on  the  right-hand  page. 


432 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


The  page  may  be  ruled  so  that  there  is  a  left  and  a  right 
hand  side  on  the  same  page.  This  is  not  so  good  as  using  the 
left-hand  page  for  debits  and  the  right-hand  page  for  credits, 
because  there  is  not  room  enough  to  write  full  explanations. 


Enter  on  the  debit  or  left- 
hand  page,  cash  paid  by  you, 
goods  sold  by  you,  work 
done  by  you,  or  any  item  of 
value  for  which  you  are  not 
paid. 


Enter  on  the  right-hand 
or  credit  side  of  the  ac- 
count, cash  paid  to  you, 
goods  delivered  to  you, 
work  done  for  you,  or  any 
item  of  value  for  which  you 
must  pay. 
The  following  is  an  account  that  a  farmer  kept  with 
James  Peterson,  his  hired-man:  — 

James  Peterson 
Commenced  work  Nov.  1,  1912,  at  $25  per  month  and  board 


Nov. 

11 

Nov. 

29 

Jan. 

2 

Jan. 

15 

Cash 

•15 

Dec. 

1 

Cash 

15 

Cash 

28 

08 

Paid  bill  at 

Jan. 

1 

store 

3 

45 

1  month's  work 
in  November 

Dec.  18  and  20 
did  not  work 

24/26  month 


$25 


23 


08 


ANNUAL   INVENTORY 

265.  Objects  of  an  inventory.  — -Of  the  different  kinds 
of  records  for  studying  the  details  of  one's  business,  no 
account  gives  more  information  for  the  work  involved  than 
does  the  annual  inventory.  Until  the  last  year  or  two, 
little  attention  has  been  given  to  this  by  institute  speakers 
or  farm  papers.  This  is  the  chief  reason  why  so  few 
farmers  take  an  annual  inventory.  The  number  who  keep 
an  inventory  is  rapidly  increasing,  and  should  soon  come 
to  include  the  majority  of  farmers^ 

Such  an  inventory  shows  how  much  has  been  made  or 


FARM   RECORDS  AND   ACCOUNTS  433 

lost  during  the  year.  -It  does  not  show  on  what  enterprise 
the  gain  or  loss  occurred.  The  hay  and  grain  crops  may 
have  returned  a  profit.  The  cows  that  ate  it  may  have 
failed  to  pay.  The  horses  may  have  stood  in  the  barn 
so  much  as  to  result  in  a  loss  on  them,  or  the  family  may 
have  been  living  beyond  its  means.  Whether  the  year 
as  a  whole  has  been  profitable  or  otherwise,  the  final  result 
is  nearly  always  made  up  of  some  gains  and  some  losses. 

When  a  man  has  money,  he  nearly  always  feels  that 
"  times  are  good."  Many  times  a  farmer  spends  freely 
because  he  has  money,  when  an  inventory  would  show  him 
that  he  ought  to  economize.  The  money  may  have  come 
because  things  on  hand  last  year  have  been  sold.  The 
inventory  may  show  a  loss. 

Just  as  frequently,  men  are  discouraged  because  there  is 
no  money,  when  an  inventory  would  show  that  young 
stock,  feed,  or  other  items  had  increased  so  much  that  on(! 
ought  to  be  very  happy  and  optimistic.  Cash  on  hand  is 
no  indication  as  to  whether  the  farm  has  paid  or  not. 

An  inventory  will  also  help  one  in  estimating  the  profits 
from  different  enterprises.  It  may  show  an  undue  depre- 
ciation on  horses  or  machinery.  No  one  can  take  an 
inventory  every  year  without  learning  much  more  than  he 
formerly  knew  about  his  business. 

266.  How  and  when  to  take  an  inventory.  —  The  usual 
time  for  taking  an  inventory  in  any  business  is  when  the 
stock  of  material  on  hand  is  lowest.  On  most  farms,  this 
is  in  late  winter  or  earh^  spring.  It  shoukl  be  taken  early 
enough  so  as  not  to  interfere  with  spring  work.  The 
first  of  February,  March,  or  April  is  the  best  date  in  most 
])arts  of  the  United  States,  but  much  depends  on  the  kind 
of  farming  followed.  On  a  poultry  farm,  October  1  or 
November  1  would  be  the  logical  time.  The  fundamental 
2f 


434 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


principle  is  to  take  the  inventory  when  there  is  the  least 
feed  and  unsold  produce  on  hand. 

The  inventory  on  almost  any  farm  can  be  taken  in  half  a 
day.  The  first  time  such  an  inventory  is  taken,  it  will  require 
some  extra  time  to  rearrange  the  items  in  convenient  order. 
In  taking  an  inventory,  one  should  go  through  each  build- 
ing carefully  and  list  all  the  equipment,  stock,  feed,  etc. 

Bins  of  grain  may  be  measured  and  the  number  of  cubic 
feet  multiphed  by  8  and  divided  by  10  to  get  the  bushels. 
For  ear  corn,  multiply  the  cubic  feet  by  4  and  divide  by  10. 
Hay  in  well-settled  stacks  usually  weighs  about  a  ton  for 
every  500  cubic  feet.  Clover  and  alfalfa  usually  weigh 
less  than  grasses.  Small  mows  or  stacks  usually  require 
more  than  this  amount  for  a  ton. 

For  convenience  in  keeping  the  inventory  in  later  years, 
it  is  best  to  copy  the  items  in  a  book.  For  the  equipment, 
it  is  convenient  to  rule  a  number  of  columns  so  that  the 
same  page  may  be  used  several  years  without  having  to 
rewrite  the  items. 

The  following  is  the  inventory  kept  by  a  tenant  farmer 
in  Nebraska.     He  took  his  inventory  on  January  first:  — 


1910 


1911 


191% 


1913 


Horses    5  head 
5  head 
5  head 
Cows    3  head 
3  head 
2  head 
Hogs       .     .     . 
Hens  65  head 
6.5  head 
72  head 
Roosters 
Hay  and  straw 
(^orn        .     .     . 


$690 


110 


200 
40 


0 
20 
40 


130 

16 

40 

7 
45 
42 


95 
16 


50 

8 

60 

65 


•SI  106 


$920       $894 


FARM    RECORDS  ANT)   ACCOUNTS 


435 


Amount  brought  forward 

Oats         

Winter  wheat  growing     72  acres 

54  acres 

100  acres 

Seed  corn     

Seed  potatoes 

Equipment 

Lumber  wagon 

Hay  rack  and  wagon      .     .     . 

Old  wagon 

Spring  wagon 

Top  buggy 

Binder  —  7  ft 

Plow,  2  gang  14  in 

Sulky  plow,  16  in 

Walking  plow 

3  cultivators 

Mower 

Hay  rake 

Mower 

Disc 

Drill,  old 

Drill 

Harrow  and  cart 

Stalk  cutter,  1  row     .... 

C^orn  planter 

Fanning  mill 

Ono-horsc  harrow       .... 

3  sets  harness 

Single  harness        

Forks  and  spades       .... 

Scoops      

Sled 

Scales 

Blacksmith  and  carpenter  tools 

Blacksmith  shop 

Hog  troughs  and  crates 

Breeding  crate 

Hog  waterers 

Feed  box 

Chicken  house 

Lumber 

Wire 

Household  goods    .  .  .  . 

Groceries 

Cash 

Miscellaneous 


$1106 

60 

312 


5 
30 

40 
32 

7 
30 
18 
140 
40 
20 

4 
35 

5 
17 

22 
16 

18 

17 

35 

6 

3 

40 

18 

4 

2 

6 
36 


3 
5 
25 
20 
40 
95 
25 
36 

40^ 

$2420 


$920 
50 

216 


25 

35 
30 

5 
25 
15 
100 
35 
18 

3 
32 

4 
15 

20 
12 

17 

15 

34 

5 

3 

37 

15 

4 

2 

4 

5 

35 

18 

6 

3 

2 

4 

8 

10 

20 

100 

20 

55 

35^ 

$2025 


400 
13 
20 

32 
25 

3 
22 
14 
90 
32 
16 

3 
30 

13 
40 
20 

77 

16 

13 

31 

5 

3 

35 

12 

4 

1 

5 

34 

17 

5 

3 

2 

4 

12 

8 

8 

100 

25 

15 

30^ 

$2132 


436  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

This  tenant  lost  about  $300  in  1910  and  made  half  of  it 
back  in  1911.  This  is  not  very  encouraging,  but  the  years 
were  dry  so  that  crops  were  poor.  The  farmer  had  four 
children  in  school.  With  a  little  help  from  the  children, 
he  came  within  $100  of  making  his  living  expenses. 
While  this  is  not  as  good  as  one  would  like,  it  is  not  so  bad 
for  two  years  of  rather  poor  crops.  The  100  acres  of 
growing  wheat  was  a  good  prospect  for  1912,  but  this  was 
again  a  dry  year.  The  farmer  is  doing  the  right  thing 
for  his  conditions,  that  is,  raising  as  many  acres  of  wheat, 
corn,  and  oats  as  possible.  If  he  can  keep  even  until 
there  is  a  year  with  good  rainfall,  he  will  make  money. 

RECEIPTS    AND    EXPENSES 

267.    Object    of    keeping    receipts    and    expenses.  — 

Many  farmers  keep  a  list  of  receipts  and  expenses.  Such 
accounts  are  of  considerable  help  in  studying  the  farm 
business.  From  these,  one  may  see  how  much  the  cows, 
corn,  and  other  enterprises  have  brought  in  during  the 
year,  and  by  making  estimates  of  costs  one  may  often  be 
guided  in  making  changes  in  the  business.  In  fact,  many 
farmers  are  able  to  figure  up  from  memory  and  give  a 
very  good  opinion  as  to  which  enterprises  pay. 

The  writer  thinks  that  nearly  every  boy  and  girl 
should  be  taught  to  keep  a  list  of  receipts  and  expenses. 
Nothing  will  so  soon  lead  to  habits  of  thrift.  Foolish 
expenses  when  written  down  are  not  so  soon  forgotten. 
It  is  a  good  thing  to  run  over  one's  expenses  occasionally 
to  see  whether  the  money  could  have  been  spent  in  a  way 
that  would  bring  more  lasting  pleasure  or  profit. 


FARM  RECORDS  AND  ACCOUNTS  437 

MISCELLANEOUS    ACCOUNTS 

268.  Other  Kinds  of  Accounts.  —  There  is  a  great  vari- 
ety of  miscellaneous  accounts,  some  of  which  are  useful 
on  one  farm,  some  on  another.  Weather  records  with 
dates  of  beginning  and  ending  important  farm  operations, 
animal  records,  milk  records,  egg  records  are  among  the 
ones  more  frequently  desired.  Various  animal  record  forms 
are  given  on  pages  221  to  223.  There  are  many  other 
kinds  of  farm  records  that  are  desirable  under  certain  con- 
ditions. It  is  often  desirable  to  make  a  sketch  of  the  fields 
showing  the  location  and  area  of  crops  each  year.  If  tile 
drains  are  laid,  an  accurate  map  of  their  location  should 
l)e  kept.  Such  a  map  is  necessary  in  making  repairs  or  in 
laying  new  drains.  Fruit  growers  need  to  keep  records  of 
the  yields  of  different  varieties,  in  order  to  learn  which 
varieties  to  plant. 

COST  ACCOUNTS   WITH   ONE    OR   MORE    CROPS    OR    KINDS   OF 

ANIMALS 

269.  Object  of  cost  accounts.  —  If  one  does  not  desire 
to  keep  a  full  set  of  cost  accounts,  he  may  keep  accounts 
with  the  important  enterprises  on  the  farm,  each  one 
independently.  The  chief  objections  to  this  method  are 
that  it  does  not  give  a  complete  study  of  the  business 
and  that  it  is  likely  to  be  wrong,  because  without  a  full  set  of 
accounts  one  is  not  likely  to  know  what  horse  labor, 
machinery  labor,  or  even  man  labor  really  cost.  Usually 
all  these  are  underestimated.  If  one  knows  what  these 
cost,  an  account  with  cows,  corn,  potatoes,  or  other  im- 
portant enterprise  may  be  of  very  great  value.  In  any 
event,  such  an  account  will  be  more  accurate  than  the 
usual  guesses. 


438  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

270.  Items  with  which  crops  must  be  charged  and 
credited.  —  A  crop  must  be  charged  and  credited  with  the 
following  items :  — 

Charges  Credits 

Inventory  of  work,   seed,   etc.   All  produce  sold. 

previously  given.  All  produce  saved  for  seed. 

Manure  from  previous  crops.         All  produce  fed  on  the  farm. 
Manure  for  this  crop.  Bedding,  etc.,  used  on  the  farm. 

Fertilizers  or  lime,  charge  all  or   Manure   charged  to  this  crop, 

part  to  this  crop.  but  probably  left  in  the  soil. 

Seed  Inventory  at    the  end   of  the 

Use  of  land.  year. 

Use  of  buildings  for  storage  of 

crops. 
Use  of  machinery. 
All  man  labor. 
All  horse  labor. 
All  other  costs  caused  by  the 

crop. 
Interest  on  costs  until  money  is 

retiu-ned. 

271.  Items  with  which  stock  must  be  charged  and 
credited.  — Stock  accounts  should  be  charged  and  credited 
as  follows :  — 

Charges  Credits 

Inventory  of  stock,  feed,  etc.,  at   Sales  of  stock. 

beginning  of  year.  Sales  of  products. 

Purchased  stock.  All  products  used  on  farm  for 

Feed    and    bedding   bought    or        other  stock. 

raised.  All  products  used  by  the  family 

Pasture.  or  hired-men  and  not  paid  for. 

Use  of  buildings.  Manure. 

Use  of  machinery.  Inventory  at  end  of  year. 

All  man  labor. 
All  horse  labor. 
All  other  costs  caused  by  the 

stock 
Interest  on  investment. 

For  methods  of  estimating  values  of  manure,  buildings, 
use  of  machinery,  etc.,  see  pp.  481  to  487. 


FARM  RECORDS  AND   ACCOUNTS 


439 


272.  An  account  with  potatoes. — The  following  is  an 
account  with  14  acres  of  potatoes  grown  in  1911.  The 
work  report  was  kept  like  that  on  page  442. 

Potatoes— 1911  —  14  Ackes.     (Left-hand  page.) 


May 

20 

Manure  — 30  T  @  $1.50 

45 

00 

May 

23 

6  oz.  corrosive  sublimate 

60 

June 

1 

4  oz.  corrosive  sublimate 

30 

June 

12 

6  lb.  Paris  green 

1 

32 

July 

3 

Chas.  Peck  —  seed  potatoes  160  bu.  0), 

450 

72 

(K) 

July 

13 

75  lb.  arsenate  of  lead 

6 

75 

Julv 

21 

50  lb.  arsenate  of  lead 

4 

50 

Aug. 

17 

35  lb.  arsenate  of  lead 

3 

15 

Mar. 

31 

Use  of  land  14  A.  @  S5.(W) 

70 

00 

828.5  hr.  man  labor  (ai  .20 

165 

70 

903  hr.  horse  labor  @  .15 

135 

45 

903  hr.  machinery  @  .05 

45 

15 

549 

92 

Gain 

282 
832 

90 

82 

Potatoes —  1911 —  14  Acres.     (Right-hand  page.) 


Oct. 

23 

226  bu.  potatoes 

136 

00 

Oct. 

26 

510  bu.  potatoes 

316 

20 

Nov. 

3 

241  bu.  potatoes 

261 

02 

Mar. 

31 

Seed  saved,  90  bu.  @  SI. 00 

90 

00 

Mar. 

31 

Saved  for  house  use,  16  bu.  @  60^ 

9 

60 

Mar. 

31 

Estimated  value  of  manure  left  in  soil 

20 

00 

832 

82 

Cost  of  production 

529 

92 

Cost  per  A. 

37 

79 

Cost  per  bu. 

49 

Gain  per  A. 

20 

21 

Gain  per  man  hr. 

34 

Man  time  to  raise  an  acre,  58  hours  (a 

very  low  rate) 

Man  time  to  raise  a  bushel,  45  minutes 

Horse  time  to  raise  an  acre,  63  hours 

Horse  time  to  raise  a  bushel,  49  minutes 

CHAPTER   17 
COMPLETE    SET    OF   COST   ACCOUNTS 

If  instead  of  keeping  accounts  with  one  crop  or  animal 
as  illustrated  with  potatoes,  one  keeps  an  account  with 
each  enterprise  on  the  farm,  he  will  have  a  complete  set  of 
cost  accounts.  There  are  some  elaborate  systems  of  double 
entry  accounts  that  have  been  devised,  usually  by  persons 
who  have  never  actually  done  any  real  keeping  of  cost  ac- 
counts on  farms.  It  is  very  rarely  that  any  such  system 
is  advisable  on  a  farm.  One  must  ever  remember  that 
cost  accounting  is  an  entirely  different  thing  from  ordinary 
bookkeeping.  All  that  is  necessary  to  have  a  complete  set 
of  cost  accounts  is  to  have  an  account,  just  like  the  potato 
account,  with  each  enterprise  on  the  farm. 

There  are  many  advantages  of  such  a  set  of  accounts. 
Instead  of  accounting  for  only  part  of  the  labor,  the  entire 
labor  of  men,  horses,  and  equipment  is  accounted  for  and 
charged  to  some  account.  Instead  of  guessing  at  what 
these  are  worth,  we  find  what  an  hour  of  horse  or  man 
labor  really  costs. 

With  such  a  set  of  accounts,  there  are  always  two  entries, 
except  for  cash  transactions.  If  one  has  an  account  with 
both  the  hay  field  and  horses,  he  will  charge  the  horses 
with  hay  at  the  same  time  that  he  credits  the  hay  field  with 
what  the  horses  ate.  If  the  hay  was  bought  for  cash,  no 
entry  is  necessary  except  the  charge  to  horses.  If  one 
desires,  he  may  keep  the  cash  account  also.  He  will  then 
have  his  accounts  by  the  double  entry  method,  but  this 

440 


COMPLETE  SET   OF  COST  ACCOUNTS  441 

nearly  doubles  the  work  and  adds  nothing  to  the  value 
of  the  accounts.     (See  page  479.) 

273.  Essential  facts  for  cost  accounts.  —  In  order  to 
know  what  it  costs  to  raise  potatoes,  or  keep  a  herd  of  cows, 
one  must  keep  track  of  all  receipts  and  expenses,  all  labor 
of  man  and  horse,  and  all  transfers  of  feed  or  other  materials 
on  the  farm  from  one  account  to  another.  Oats  raised  on 
the  farm  and  fed  to  horses  must  be  credited  to  the  oat  crop 
and  charged  to  horses.  Produce  used  in  the  house  must 
also  be  recorded  or  estimated.  If  these  three  kinds  of 
facts  —  cash,  transfer  charges,  and  labor  —  are  recorded, 
one  has  all  the  necessary  data  for  a  set  of  cost  accounts, 
except  the  inventory,  use  of  land,  buildings,  etc.,  that 
need  not  be  recorded  until  the  end  of  the  year. 

274.  Methods  of  cost  accounting.  —  Naturally,  there 
are  many  ways  of  recording  such  data.  The  best  way 
on  any  particular  farm  is  the  way  that  requires  the  least 
work  and  yet  gives  the  farmer  all  the  facts  that  he  desires. 
One  of  the  shortest  possible  ways  of  keeping  accounts  that 
will  give  all  the  information  that  is  likely  to  be  wanted  is 
illustrated  by  the  following  set  of  accounts  kept  by  a  New 
York  farmer  in  1911.  This  method  has  been  used  on  a 
considerable  number  of  farms  with  good  success.  Later 
we  will  consider  the  merits  of  this  and  other  methods. 


A   COMPLETE    SET   OF   COST   ACCOUNTS    AS    KEPT   BY   A 
FARMER 

275.  Methods  used  and  accounts.  —  On  this  farm 
accounts  were  kept  with  three  alfalfa  fields,  buckwheat, 
corn  grown  on  shares  by  a  neighbor,  cattle,  equipment, 
farm,  timothy  hay,  hens,  horses,  improvements,  interest, 
labor,  notes  and  accounts  payable,   notes  and  accounts 


442 


FAliM  MANAGEMENT 


receivable,  oats  1911,  oats  1912,  orchard,  pasture,  wheat 
1911,  wheat  1912,  wood  lot,  and  personal  expenses.  The 
farm  contains  about  200  acres,  about  80  of  which  was  in 
pasture,  woods,  roads,  waste  land,  etc. 

Two  books  were  used,  one  for  labor  and  one  for  ledger 
accounts.     Each  evening,  the  time  spent  on  each  crop 


JJIU^U^ 


Fig.  109.  —  A  convenient  form  of  work  report. 


-m 

»^- 

UoT/^e^ 

H^i* 

■?t,^ 

>h^. 

7U^ 

9 

^? 

? 

^7 

f 

^? 

f 

2? 

s- 

Ys- 

/?. 

}ro 

9- 

vr 

AC 

/s- 

f 

V 

"f 

t? 

f 

^;^ 

9 

2-7 

/o 

3o 

(Tl 

" 

^<r 

or  animal  was  entered  in  the  work  report  under  the  name 
of  that  crop  or  animal,  as  shown  in  Figure  109.  Strips  of 
gummed  tape  were  fastened  to  the  pages,  so  that  the 
proper  place  could  be  quickly  found. 

The  chores  for  the  year  were  kept  in  the  front  of  the 
work  report  book  on  12  pages  like  the  following :  — 


January,  1911 

Horses 

Cows 

Hens 

Hra. 

Min. 

Hra. 

Min. 

Hrs. 

Min. 

1 

45 

2 

15 

30 

2 

1 

2 

30 

3 

45 

2 

30 

40 

Weather 


COMPLETE  SET  OF  COST  ACCOUNTS  443 

Keeping  track  of  the  work  in  this  way  on  a  farm  where 
two  or  three  persons  do  all  the  work  requires  one  to  five 
minutes  per  clay. 

There  is  not  room  here  to  give  all  the  work  reports,  but 
all  the  ledger  accounts  are  given  in  full,  except  that  in 
many  places  a  large  number  of  entries  of  a  like  character 
are  added  together  to  save  space  in  printing. 

The  account  with  each  of  the  crops  and  animals  is  just 
as  the  farmer  kept  it.  The  personal  account  is  not  as  he 
kept  it,  but  is  included  to  show  the  method  of  keeping 
such  an  account.  The  year  1911  was  a  year  of  poor  crops 
and  high  prices  for  feed. 

The  results  of  this  set  of  accounts  are  discussed  in  detail 
not  because  of  the  results,  but  to  show  methods  of  keeping 
accounts.  The  method  is  as  well  adapted  to  a  cotton  farm 
or  an  orange  plantation,  or  any  other  kind  of  farming. 

INTERPRETATION  OF   RESULTS 

276.  Cautions  in  interpreting  results.  —  Since  the 
object  of  cost  accounting  is  to  help  in  studying  one's 
business,  it  is  evident  that  the  interpretation  of  results  is 
the  most  important  part  of  the  work.  By  studying  the 
accounts,  one  may  see  ways  of  reducing  the  cost  or  in- 
creasing the  returns.  It  is  just  as  necessary  to  study  the 
accounts  that  pay  as  to  study  those  that  do  not  pay. 

If  an  account  comes  out  even,  it  means  that  the  enter- 
prise has  paid  interest  on  the  money  invested  and  paid 
all  costs  and  furnished  employment  for  men,  horses,  and 
machinery  at  the  rates  charged  for  these.  Such  an  enter- 
prise may  be  continued,  but  like  all  other  enterprises,  one 
must  be  looking  for  ways  to  make  it  pay  better  or  for  some- 
thing to  replace  it  that  will  pay  better.  {Continued  on 
page  4'^ 2.) 


444  FAHM  MANAGEMENT 

1.    Alfalfa  A.    TJ  Acres  — 1911 


Jan. 
Deo. 


1 
31 


Inventory 

208  hours  man  labor  @  21^  ji  14 

191  hour.s  horse  labor  @  I'Si  11 

191  hours  equipment  labor  (it)  Sfjjjf  7 

Interest  on  $386  @  5%  6  months  13 

Use  of  land  8 

Main 


309 

44 

24 

7 

9 

23 


418 

187 


606 


72 

83 
45 
65 

65 
35 


2.  Alfalfa  B.    3  Acres  New  Seeding  on  Summer  Fallow  — 

1911 


Mar.   13 

120  pounds  seed,  $25.50,  bag,  25^,  freight. 

400  (f  charged  to  Alfalfa  C) 

15 

69 

Dec.    31 

Manure                                             6,  10 

11 

30 

212  man  hours  @,  21i«' 

14 

45 

58 

412  horse  hours  @  13^ 

11 

53 

56 

412  equipment  hours  @  3x%f 

7 

16 

06 

Use  of  land 

8 

9 

Interest  on  $160.89  @  5%  6  months 

13 

4 

02 

173 

91 

3.  Alfalfa  C.    2  Acres  Seeded  in  Oats — 1911 


Mar.   13 


48  lb.  seed 

4  hr.  man  .86,  horse  .52,  equipm't  .16 :  labor 


10 

1 

46 

54 

12 

00 

COMPLETE  SET  OF  COST   JCCGVNTS 
1.    Alfalfa  A.     7f  Acres — 1911 


445 


Oct.       1 
Dec.    31 


20  tons  hay 
Inventory 

The  inventory  represents  a  part  of 
the  original  cost  of  starting  the  crop. 
The  tield  Avas  limed,  manured,  and 
stimmer-fallowed.  It  is  expected  to 
last  four  years.  One-fourth  of  the 
cost  is  charged  each  year. 

Figures  before  the  dollars'  column 
refer  to  the  number  of  the  other  ac- 
count that  is  concerned ;  14  refers  to 
the  labor  account. 

Interest  is  charged  because  all  the 
costs  were  incurred  and  money  spent 
some  time  before  the  crop  was  used 
for  sale  or  feed. 


2.  Alfalfa  B.    3  Acres  New  Seeding  on  Summer  Fallow  — 

1911 


Dee.    31    Inventoried  at  cost 


The  very  large  amount  of  time  spent 
on  this  alfalfa  was  due  to  plowing  in 
hot  weather  and  to  picking  stone. 


3.  Alfalfa  C.     2  Acres  Seeded  in  Oats — 1911 


Dec. 

31 

Inventoried  at  cost 

12 

00 

12 

00 

446  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

4.   Buckwheat,  3^  Acres — 1911 


May    15 

4  bu.  seed 

4 

Oct.    30 

Coal  for  threshing 

80 

Threshing  67  bu.  Ca)  4^ 

2 

68 

Dec.    31 

110  man  hours  @  21|^ 

14 

23 

65 

130  horse  hours  @  13jS 

11 

16 

90 

130  equipment  hours  @  3^^^ 

7 

5 

07 

53 

10 

Gain 

3 

20 

56 

30 

5.  Corn  —  3  Acres  on  Land  rented  to  Mr.  Hamilton 


Dec.    31 

Use  of  land 

24  man  hr.  husking  and  hauling  @  21 

20  horse  hours  @  13; 

20  equipment  hours  @  3x5  J* 

Gain 

8 

,J?  14 

11 

7 

9 
5 
2 

16 
60 

78 

17 
19 

54 
66 

37 

20 

6.  Cattle  — 1911 


Jan.      1 


Feb.    28 


Inventory  : 

Grade  cows,  Nos.    1,  $70;    2,  $65; 

4,  $60 
Grade    yearlings,    Nos.    8,    $30;    9, 

$30;  10,  $20;  11,  $15;  17,  $35 
Pure-bred  cows,  3,  $150  ;  18,  $150 
Pure-bred  yearlings,  5,  $100;  6,  $50; 

7,  $50 
Pure-bred  yearling  bull,  $50 
8  tons  alfalfa,  $144 
6  tons  hay,  $63 
2  tons  straw,  $10 
2i  tons  mixed  feed,  $70 

900  lb.  corn  meal,  $11.25;  100  lb.  bran, 
$1.40;  100  lb.  oil  meal,  $2.00;  200 
lb.  gluten,  $3.00  ;  250  lb.  ajax,  $4.13 

{Carried  forward) 


1162 
21 


78 


COMPLETE  SET  OF  COST  ACCOUNTS 
4.    Buckwheat,  3.^  Acres  —  1911 


447 


Oct.    30 
30 


67  bushels  to  hens 
Straw  to  hens 


Buckwheat  was  grown  on  land  that 
was  being  cleared.  The  work  of  clear- 
ing is  included.  The  buckwheat  was 
an  incidental  crop. 


5.  Corn  —  3  Acres  on  Land  rented  to  Mr.  Hamilton 


Nov.     1 
10 


Ij  tons  stalks  to  cows 

32  bu.  corn  to  hens  @  85)* 


6.  Cattle  — 1911 


Feb. 
April 

4 
10 
25 

June 

14 

Aug. 

24 

Dec. 

1 

The  total  milk  for  the  year  was  disposed 
of  as  follows,  details  are  here  omitted 
to  save  space  in  printing. 

Milk  sold 

2603  qt.  used  in  house  @  31^  25 

Butter  and  cream  used  in  house  25 

1990  qt.  skim  milk  to  hens  10 

360  qt.  to  hired-man  14 

Calf 

Calf 

Received  for  taking  tuberculous  cow  to 
station  (labor  was  charged  to  cows) 

Hide  — No.  17  struck  by  lightning,  46  lb. 

Received  for  condemned  tuberculous  cow 
No.  18.  $100.00  ;  Board  of  cow,  $3.25 
Transferred  400  lb.  corn  meal  to  hens      10 

(Curried  forward) 


402 
91 
31 
13 
12 
2 
16 

1 

3 

103 


72 
11 
37 
93 
60 

50 

75 

45 

25 
60 


448 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 
6.    Cattle  — 1911  (Continued) 


Mar. 

10 

15 

21 

April 

6 

16 

24 

May 

5 

6 

10 

July 

10 

Aug. 

1 

Sept. 

13 

18 

Oct. 

1 

3 

7 

23 

24 

Nov. 

1 

24 

25 

Dee. 

31 

Notary  fee  tuberculin  test 
Corn  stalks  of  Mr.  Waters 
Transferred  from  horses  to  cows  :  100  lb. 
oil  meal,    .S2.00 ;    100   lb.  middlings, 
$1.50  ;  200  lb.  bran,  $2.80  ;  3  bu.  oats, 
$1.50  11 

1000  lb.  corn  meal,  $12.00  ;  200  lb.  glu- 
ten, $2.80  ;   200  lb.  bran,  $2.90  ;    100 
lb.  oil  meal,  $2.25  ;  250  lb.  ajax,  $4.13 
Membership  breeders'  association 
Ad.  —  Calf  for  sale 
Bull  ring 

Heifer  calf,  No.  12,  $8.40  ;  telephone  10 ji 
Notary  fee  tuberculin  test 
Heifer  calf.  No.  13 
Fire  insurance 

Heifer  calf.  No.  14,  $5.00  ;  telephone,  10^ 
6  tons  oat  straw,  oat  field  17 

3  tons  wheat  straw,  wheat  field  21 

Bull  ring 

400  lb.  corn  meal,  $6.20 ;  200  lb.   bran, 
$3.00 ;   200  lb.  middlings  $3.20  ;  250 
lb.  ajax,  $4.00 
20  tons  alfalfa  1 

Pure-bred  heifer.  No.  16  ;  telephone,  10  j^ 
Veterinary  fee  to  date 
Pasture  20 

Two  loads  corn  stalks,  Mr.  Miner 
1^  tons  corn  stalks  5 

7800   lb.    corn   meal,    $126.40;    6875  lb. 
ajax,  $113.42;   6000  lb.  wheat  feed, 
$90.48 ;  400  lb.  bran,  $6.00 ;  400  lb. 
oil  meal,  $9.00 
Ad.  —  Calf  for  sale 
Billheads,  10^;  vaseline,  10^;  Breeders' 

journal,  25 j^ 
13  tons  hay  from  hayfield  9 

Use  of  barn  for  cattle  8 

1249  man  hours  @  2H  ^  14 

147  horse  hours  @  13?f  11 

147  equipment  hours  @  3-^^  7 

Interest  on  average  inventory,  $1514.50 
@5%  13 


24 
1 


6 

3 

5 

36 

15 


16 
400 
50 
7 
68 
10 
10 


345 


195 
60 

268 

19 

5 

75^ 

2824 


COMPLETE  SET  OF  COST  ACCOUNTS 
6.     Cattle — 1911  (Continued) 


449 


Dee.      1 
31 

100   lb.   corn  meal   taken   by  hired-man 
on  a/c                                                   14 
Manure  for  the  year                   2,  9,  19,  24 
Inventory  : 
Grade  eows,  1,  $70  ;  2,  $65  ;  4,  $55  ; 

8,  $50  ;  9,  $50 
Grade  heifers,   10,  $35;  11,  $30; 
12,  $25  ;  13,  $15  ;  14,  $20  ;  15,  $20 
4  veal  calves,  .$45 
Pure-bred  cows,  3,  $150 ;  5,  $125 
Pure-bred  heifers,  6,  $125;  7,  $125  ; 

16,  $60 
Pure-bred  bull,  $50 

3  tons  straw,  $16  ;   14  tons  alfalfa,  .$280  ; 
11  tons  mixed  hay,  .$165  ;  1  ton  stalks, 
$8  ;  17,800  lb.  mixed  feed,  $283 

Loss 

The  total  value  manure  of  cattle, 
hens,  and  horses  is  credited  to  the 
animals  and  charged  to  alfalfa,  hay, 
and  orchard. 

The  loss  on  cows  was  due  to  the 
number  of  young  stock  kept,  and  un- 
usually high  price  of  feed.  Grade 
heifers  do  not  pay  for  raising  on  such 
expensive  feed. 

1 
70 

1115 

752 

60 

2622 
201 

88 
92 

2824 

80 

2a 


450 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 
7.  Equipment  — 1911 


Jan. 


Inventory  —  summary 
Total  oil,  gasoline,  repairs,  and  new  equip- 
ment for  year,  here  summarized    to 
save  space 
Use  of  buildings  8 

161  man  hours  @  2H  i  14 

33  horse  hours  @  13^  11 

Interest  on  average  inventory  $850.77 
@  5%  13 

Gain 

The  cost  of  equipment  for  the  year 
was  $238.79,  of  which  $12.48  was 
charged  to  the  labor  and  horse  ac- 
counts. The  remaining  charge  is 
divided  among  the  different  enter- 
prises in  proportion  to  the  number  of 
horse  hours  of  work. 

Aside  from  the  work  for  labor  and 
horses  and  equipment  there  were  5831 
hours  of  work  costing  $226.31 ,  or  3/^  ^ 
per  hour.  For  principles  involved  see 
page  486. 


723 


396 

15 

34 

4 

42^ 

1216 
1 


80 


27 

62 
29 

5^ 
52 
07 


1217 


59 


COMPLETE  SET  OF  COST  ACCOUNTS 
7.   Equipment — 1911 


451 


Dec.    31 

279   hours   use   of   equipment   by   labor 

(5  4^  (estimated) 

14 

11 

16 

33  hours  use  for  horses 

11 

1 

32 

Inventory 

977 

73 

Use  of  equipment 

191  hours  alfalfa  A  @  3r*ff  j5 

1 

7 

45 

412  hours  alfalfa  B 

2 

16 

06 

4  hours  alfalfa  C 

3 

16 

130  buckwheat 

4 

5 

07 

20  corn 

5 

78 

147  cattle 

6 

5 

73 

1108  hay 

8 

43 

21 

111  hens 

10 

4 

33 

848  improvements,  barn 

12 

33 

07 

537  improvements,  clearing 

12 

20 

94 

411  oats  — 1911 

17 

16 

03 

421  oats  — 1912 

18 

16 

42 

326  orchard 

19 

12 

71 

41  pasture 

20 

1 

60 

45  wheat  — 1911 

21 

1 

75 

640  wheat— 1912 

22 

24 

96 

166  wood  lot 

23 

6 

47 

54  garden 

24 

2 

10 

219  personal 

25 

8 

54 

1217 

59 

• 

452 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 
8.   Farm  — 1911 


Jan. 

1 

Feb. 

1 

9 

Mar. 

13 

15 

Sept. 

11 

Nov. 

29 

Dec. 

31 

Inventory 

Taxes 

Bought  llj  acres  land,  cash  $443.76 

Mortgage  to  Farmer's  Bank,  $400      15 

Recording  deed,  $1.10 
School  taxes 

Surveying  boundary  line 
"  No  hunting  "  signs 
Insurance  on  buildings 
Insurance  on  buildings 
Cost  of  new  barn  12 

Clearing  land,   from  the  improvement 

account  12 

Interest  on  average  inventory, 

$18,125,  @  5%  13 

Gain 


9.   Hay,  Timothy,  67.4  Acres  — 1911 


16650 

70 

84 

844 

86 

15 

15 

1 

50 

3 

5 

60 

10 

86 

1897 

77 

235 

66 

906 

25 

20641 

49 

76 

51 

20718 

00 

Jan. 

1 

Inventory :  Grass  seed  on  hand  and  ma- 
nure applied  since  hay  was  cut 

83 

Mar. 

13 

130  lb.   timothy,   $16.32;    90   lb,   alsike 
clover,    $15.75;    90    lb.     red    clover, 

$15.60  ;  bags,  75^  ;  freight,  $1.04 

49 

46 

14 

2  tons  nitrate  soda,  .$96 ;   2\  tons  acid 
phosphate,  $30  ;  freight,  $17 

143 

June 

14 

1  ton  salt 

2 

July 

1 

Insurance 

9 

Sept. 

18 

4  bu.  timothy  seed 

32 

Oct. 

8 

Meals  for  hay  pressers 

13 

25 

Dec. 

31 

Manure  for  year                               6,  10,  11 
Use  of  buildings                                            8 
Use  of  land :  50  acres  @  $3 ;  17.4  acres 

@  $2                                                       8 

95 
150 

185 

1094  man  hours  @  2Hjf                            14 

235 

21 

1108  horse  hours  @  13  fi                             U 

144 

04 

1108  equipment  hours  @  3^%^                   7 

43 

21 

Interest                                                         13 

20 
1205 

98 
15 

Gain 

615 

1820 

40 

6b 

COMPLETE  SET  OF  COST  ACCOUNTS 
8.   Farm  — 1911 


4r,3 


July    31 

House  rent 

18  1 

Dec.    31 

Use  of  buildings  —  equipment 

7 

15 

Use  of  buildings  —  eows 

G 

00 

Use  of  buildings — ^hay 

9 

150 

Use  of  buildings  —  hens 

10 

30 

Use  of  buildings  —  horses 

11 

25 

Use  of  houses  —  labor 

14 

165 

Use  of  house  —  personal 

25 

150 

Use  of  land  —  alfalfa  A 

1 

23 

U'se  of  land  —  alfalfa  B 

2 

9 

Use  of  land  —  corn 

5 

9 

Use  of  land  —  hay 

9 

185 

Use  of  land  —  oats 

17 

69 

Use  of  land  —  orchard 

19 

30 

Use  of  land  —  pasture 

20 

90 

Use  of  land  —  Avheat 

21 

33 

' 

Use  of  land  —  wood  lot 

23 

52 

Use  of  land  —  garden 

24 

5 

layentory 

19600 

9.   Hay,  Timothy,  67.4  Acres - 

-1911 

20718 

605  lb.  hay 

46361  lb.  (?/  S20  per  ton 

3000  lb.  used  by  hired-man's  horse  14 

13  tons  mixed  hay  to  cows  (5,  §15  6 

12J  tons  mixed  hay  to  horses  11 

Inyentory  43 i  tons  $826.50 

Seed  on  hand  18.00 

Manure  applied  since  cutting  60.00 


Interest  is  charged  on  the  cost  other  than 
land  and  buildings  for  6  months  @ 
5%  (land  and  buildings  haye  paid 
interest  under  farm  account) 


5     44 

463     61 

27 

195 

225 


904 


50 


1820     55 


454 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 
10.    Hens— 1911 


Jan. 

1 

Feb. 

8 

28 

Apr. 

1 
6 

13 

18 

24 

May 

1 
2 

June 

6 

7 

13 

29 

July 
Aug. 

10 
1 

Sept. 

13 

Oct. 

30 

31 

Nov. 

1 

116  pullets,  $116.00;  96  yearling  hens, 
$72.00;  8  roosters,  $8.00;  colony 
houses,  $20.80  ;  leg  bands,  $1.00 ;  cor- 
bolineum,  $3.00;  42^  bu.  wheat, 
$42.50;  h  ton  mixed  feed,  $15.00; 
oyster  shell,  $2.00;  27  bu.  corn,  $15.50 

Paper  for  brooder  house 

100  lb.  grit 

1990  qt.  skim  milk  for  year,  summarized 
to  save  space  6 

Repairs  brooder  house 

100  lb.  corn  meal 

50  gal.  gasoline 

Fire  insurance  permit  to  put  incubator 
in  cellar 

Advertising  eggs 

1813  lb.  wheat 

Incubator,  390  egg  size 

3  universal  hovers 

100  lb.  grit 

Kerosene  brooders  and  incubators 

13  lb.  chick  food 

600  lb.  bran,  $8.70 ;  300  lb.  corn  meal, 
$4.05 ;  300  lb.  middlings,  $4.65 ;  300 
lb.  cracked  corn,  $4.05;  100  lb. 
meat  scrap,  $3.25 

87  lb.  rolled  oats  for  chickens 

Kerosene  for  brooders 

4122  lb.  wheat,  $68.70 ;  1901  lb.  cracked 
corn,  $25.66 

Insurance  on  hens 

500  lb.  corn  meal,  $7.75 ;  500  lb.  mid- 
dlings, $7.75 ;  400  lb.  meat  scrap, 
$12.00-  200  lb.  bran,  $3.00;  100  lb. 
oil  meal,  $2.25 

178  bu.  wheat  from  wheat  field  @  95i4    21 

2  tons  wheat  straw  21 

67  bu.  buckwheat  4 

Buckwheat  straw  4 

Cabbage  from  garden  24 

300  lb.  corn  meal,  .$7.50;  200  lb.  bran, 
$2.80  ;  600  lb.  middUngs,  $9.90 ;  1000 
lb.  oyster  shell,   $6.00 ;  300  lb.   grit, 


(.Carried  forward) 


COMPLETE  SET  OF  COST  ACCOUNTS 
10.     Hens  — 1911 


455 


Dec.    31 


The  sales  during  the  year  are  here  sum- 
marized to  save  space : 

1449^  doz.  eggs 

loOi  doz.  eggs  sold  to  incubate 

2575  doz.  eggs  used  in  house  25 

84  hens,  7  roosters 

315  cockerels 

4  hens,  1  rooster  used  in  house  25 

34  cockrels  used  in  house  25 

Manure  2,  9,  19,  24 

Inventory : 

404  pullets,  S404.00 ;  116  hens,  $87.00 ; 
25  roosters,  $25.00;  9  cull  roosters, 
$4.50 

900  lb.  oyster  shell,  .$5.40 ;  300  lb.  grit, 
$1.80;  300  lb.  bone  meal,  $7.50  ;  300 
lb.  meat  scraps,  .$9.00 ;  500  lb.  mid- 
dlings, $8.25;  300  lb.  corn  meal, 
$4.80;  150  lb.  bran,  $2.10;  4  tons 
corn,  $126.75;  400  bu.  wheat,  $380.00; 
50  bu.  buckwheat,  $36.00;  straw, 
$5.00 

Incubator,  .$30.80;  brooders,  $19.50; 
brooder  house,  $20.00  ;  colony  house 
made  of  old  boards,  $10.00;  feed 
hopper,  $3.00 


(.Carried  forwarS) 


348  39 

53  09 

62  41 

44  80 

117  70 

2  35 

10  05 

20 


520 


50 


586 


83 


60 


30 


1849 


19 


456 


FAUM  MANAGEMENT 
10.     Hens— 1911   {Continued) 


Nov. 


Dec. 


10 

1 

29 

31 


$1.80;    5001b.   meat    scrap,    S13.75; 

freight  on  meat  scrap,  SI.  15 
342  bu.  wheat,  $324.90 ;    advertisement 

for  wheat,  $.25 
8000  lb.  corn 

32  bu.  corn  from  cornfield  5 

400  lb.  corn  meal  from  cows  to  hens  6 

10  egg  cases 

I'se  of  buildings  8 

606  man  hours  (268  hens  and  338  chickens) 

@21H  14 

HI  horse  hours  (77  hens  and  34  chickens) 

@  13^  11 

111  equipment  hours  @  3/5  ^  7 

Interest  on  average  inventory  $743.00  @ 

5%  13 

Gain 


42 


325 

15 

126 

75 

27 

20 

5 

60 

1 

30 

130 

29 

14 

43 

4 

33 

37 

15 

1555 

87 

293 

32 

1849 

J9 

90 


('OMI'LF/rK  SET  OF  COST  ACCOUNTS 
10.     Hens  — 1911  {Continued) 


4;*) 


1849 


1849 


19 


19 


Summary  for  Year 


Hens 

Roosters 

Eggs 

No. 
First 

Died 

Sold  or 

No. 
First 

Died 

Sold  or 

Laid 

Month 

Eaten 

Month 

e.\ten 

Jan. 

212 

1 

8 

1272 

Feb. 

211 

1 

8 

1384 

Mar. 

210 

8 

2480 

Apr. 

210 

2 

8 

3658 

May 

208 

3 

8 

4164 

Juno 

205 

2 

26 

8 

8 

2794 

July 

177 

61 

1341 

Aug. 

116 

1316 

Sept. 

116 

1278 

Oct. 

116 

736 

Nov. 

522 

2 

37 

1 

2 

773 

Dec. 

520 

34 

2786 

1711  eggs  were  incubated. 


458 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 
11.  Horses  — 1911 


Jan. 


20 

Feb. 

9 

July 

10 

Sept. 

13 

Oct. 

4 

7 

23 

24 

Nov. 

25 

Dec. 

4 

10 


Dec.    31 


20 


Inventory  : 

Frank,    $100;    Jennie,  $145;    colt,  .$40; 

i  ton  mixed  feed,  .$8  ;  400  bu.  oats, 

$178  ;  9  tons  hay,  $99 

Delia,  bought   of  James  Peterson,  cash, 

$100  ;  note  due  Oct.  1,  6%,  $107.50  15 

Maud,  bought  of  James  Peterson,  cash, 

$55  ;  note  due  Oct.  1,6%,  $100        15 

Insurance 

668bu.  oats  @50?i  17 

6  tons  oat  straw  @  $6  '  17 

3  tons  wheat  straw  @  $5  21 

Minnie  —  Percheron  colt 
Veterinary  to  date 
Pasture 
Two  loads  hay,  Mr.  Mays 
12|  tons  hay  9 

Membership  Percheron  society 
Registration  of  mare 
850  lb.  bran 
100  lb.  oil  meal 
Ad.  —  colt  for  sale 
Stallion  service 

Other  costs  of  the  year  are  here  summar 
rized  to  save  space. 

Shoeing  for  the  year 

Stabling  for  the  year 

Halters  for  the  year 

Medicine  for  the  year 
Use  of  buildings  8 

714  man  hours  @  21^  ^  14 

33  equipment  hours  7 

Interest  on    average  inventory,   $947.70 
@5%  13 


COMPLETE  SET  OF  COST  ACCOUNTS 
11.  Horses— 1911 


459 


Mar.   21 

Transferred  horses   to  cows  :   100  lb.  oil 
meal,  $2.00 ;  100  lb.  middlings,  $1.50  ; 
200    lb.     bran,    $2.80,     3    bu.    oats, 

$1.50                                                        5 

7 

80 

Aug.      1 

Received  for  horse  labor 

1 

Dec.      1 

100  lb.  bran  taken  by  hired-man  on  a/c     14 

1 

40 

31 

Manure  for  the  year                      2,  9,  19,  24 

50 

279  hr.  horse  labor  for  hired-men             14 

34 

88 

Inventory : 

Frank,  $80-  Jennie,  $140;  Delia,  $175; 

Maud,  $150  ;  Minnie,  $335  ;  colt,  $75 

955 

7  tons  straw,  $40 ;  500  bu.  oats,  $250 ; 

600   lb.  bran,  $8.40  ;   4  tons  hay,  $72 

370 

40 

Work  for  the  year  : 

191  hr.  alfalfa  A  @  13  fi                             1 

24 

83 

412  hr.  alfalfa  B                                        2 

53 

56 

4  hr.  alfalfa  C                                             3 

52 

130  hr.  buckwheat                                    4 

16 

90 

20  hr.  corn                                                    5 

2 

60 

147  hr.  cattle                                             6 

19 

11 

33  hr.  equipment                                       7 

4 

29 

1108  hr  hay                                                9 

144 

04 

111  hr.  hens                                              10 

14 

43 

848  hr.  improvements,  barn                  12 

110 

24 

537  hr.  improvements,  clearing             12 

69 

81 

411hr.  oats— 1911                                 17 

53 

43 

421hr.  oats— 1912                                 18 

54 

73 

326  hr.  orchard                                        19 

42 

38 

41  hr.  pasture                                          20 

5 

33 

45  hr.  wheat— 1911                                21 

5 

85 

640hr.  wheat— 1912                              22 

83 

20 

166  hr.  wood  lot                                      23 

21 

58 

54  hr.  garden                                           24 

7 

02 

219  hr.  personal                                       25 

28 

47 

2182 

80 

Loss 

4 

41 

2187 

21 

400  PA  EM  MANAGEMENT 

12.   Improvements  —  Building  a  Barn  and  Clearing  Land 


June     5 


5000  ft.  lumber  wood  lot  23 

Total    cash    cost    of    lumber,    hardware, 
cement,  etc.,  summarized  to  save  space 
1990  man  hours  on  barn  @  21  i^  14 

848  horse  hours  on  barn  @  13ff  11 

848  equipment  hours  on  barn  @  BY'ijff        7 
674  man  hours  clearing  land  14 

537  horse  hours  clearing  land  1 1 

537  equipment  hours  clearing  land  7 


13.   Interest  — 1911 


Feb. 

9 

July 

1 

Sept. 

1 

Oct. 

24 

Dec. 

23 

27 

Drawing  mortgage,  $2  ;  recording,  $1.35 
Farmers'  bank,  interest  on  mortgage 
Interest  in  advance  on  loan  on  life  insur- 
ance policy 
Interest  —  James  Peterson 
Farmers'  bank,  interest  on  mortgage 
Andrew  Thomas 

Gain 


3 

148 

22 

8 
149 
300 


632 
536 


1168 


COMPLETE  SET  OF  COST  ACCOUNTS  461 

12.  Improvements  —  Building  a  Barn  and  Clearing  Land 


Cost  of  barn 
Cost  of  clearing 


$1897.77 
235.66 


Carried  to  farm  account  at  cost. 

This  is  a  part  of  the  farm  account 
but  was  kept  separate  to  get  the  cost 
of  the  barn  and  clearing. 


13.  Interest — 1911 


Dec.    31 


Interest  on  farm  enterprises 
Alfalfa  A 
Alfalfa  B 
Cattle 
Equipment 
Hay 
Hens 
Horses 
Farm 
Oats 
Orchard 
Wheat— 1911 
Wheat  — 1912 


1 

9 

2 

4 

6 

75 

7 

42 

9 

20 

10 

37 

11 

47 

8 

906 

17 

7 

19 

8 

21 

5 

22 

3 

1168 

65 
02 
73 
54 
98 
15 
39 
25 
54 
21 
65 
33 
44 


462 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 
14.     Labor— 1911 


Jan.       1 

Work  report  books  and  ledger 

1 

75 

Mar.    15 

Wood  used  by  hired-men                          23 

30 

Nov.   25 

H  tons  hay  used  by  hired-man's  horse     9 

27 

Dec.      1 

100  lb.  corn    meal   furnished    to    hired- 

man                                                         6 

1 

60 

100  lb.   wheat  bran  furnished  to  hired- 

man                                                       11 

1 

40 

The  other  costs  of  labor  are  here  summa- 

rized to  save  space : 

360  qt.  milk                                               6 

12 

60 

Board  furnished  by  house                     25 

25 

06 

Board  paid 

92 

60 

Paid  for  labor 

904 

40 

31 

Owner's  work  (estimated)                     25 

600 

Use  of  buildings  by  men                          8 

165 

279  hr.  horse  labor  for  men                   11 

34 

88 

279  hr.  equipment                                    7 

11 

16 

^"""^^^ 

1907 

45 

15.  Notes  and  Accounts  Payable  — 1911 


Dec.   31 

Inventory 

12,057 

50 

12,057 

50 

COMPLETE  SET  OF  COST  ACCOUNTS  463 

14.    Labor  — 1911 


Aug.      1 

Received  for  labor 

75 

Dec.    31 

Labor  on  various  farm  enterprises : 

208hr.  alfalfa  A  @  21^  ji 

1 

44 

72 

212  hr.  alfalfa  B 

2 

45 

58 

4  hr.  alfalfa  C 

3 

86 

110  hr.  buckwheat 

4 

23 

65 

24  hr.  corn 

5 

5 

16 

1249  hr.  cattle 

6 

268 

54 

161  hr.  equipment 

7 

34 

62 

1094  hr.  hay 

9 

235 

21 

606  hr.  hens 

10 

130 

29 

714  hr.  horses 

11 

153 

51 

1990  hr.  improvements,  barn 

12 

427 

85 

674  hr.  improvements,  clearing 

12 

144 

91 

270  hr.  oats,  1911 

17 

58 

05 

•   151  hr.  oats,  1912 

18 

32 

47 

583  hr.  orchard 

19 

125 

35 

23  hr.  pasture 

20 

4 

95 

99  hr.  wheat,  1911 

21 

21 

29 

278  hr.  wheat,  1912 

22 

59 

77 

146  hr.  wood  lot 

23 

31 

39 

81  hr.  garden 

24 

17 

42 

158  hr.  personal 

25 

33 

97 

1900 

31 

Loss 

7 

14 

1907 

45 

Jan.       1 


20 

Feb. 

9 

9 

Sept. 

1 

15.  Notes  and  Accounts  Payable — 1911 


Mortgage,  Andrew  Thomas,  5  yr.  @  5% 
Mortgage,    Farmers'    bank,    due     1915, 

Note,  James  Peterson,  due  Oct.  1 ,  @  6  %  1 1 
Note,  James  Peterson,  due  Oct.  1 ,  @  6  %  1 1 
Mortgage,  Farmers'  bank,  2  yr.  @  6  %  8 
Borrowed  on  life  insurance  policy 


464 


FARM  MA y A  (JF.MEN T 
17.   Oats,  23  Acres— 1911 


Jan.       1 


Mar.  13 


July 
Sept. 

Got. 


14 
1 

8 

12 

8 


Dee.    31 


Inventory  : 
134  hr.  man  labor  (126  plowing, 

8  other  work) 
254    lir.  horse    and    equipment 

labor  (248  fall  plowing,  0  other 

work)  .S84.08 
G(i  Ini.  oats  for  seed  $33 
2  bu.  seed  oats,  $2  ;  freight,  13  f' ; 

bag,  25  f^ 
Fertilizer 
Insurance 
Twine  and  cutting 
Coal  for  threshing 
Meals  for  threshers 
Threshing  668  bu.  @  2.?  ^ 
Use  of  land 

270  man  hours  C«j21.if^ 
41 1  horse  hours  (ffi.  13? 
411  equipment  hours  @  3^%^ 
Interest  on  S301.63,  6  mo.  @  5% 

Gain 


8 
14 
11 

7 
13 


117 

2 
10 

3 
22 


16 
69 
58 
5ii 
16 
7_ 

378 
27 

406 


18.    Oats,  22  Acres  — 1912 


Dec.    31     151  man  hours  fall  plowing  @  21^^         14 
421  horse  hours  @  13^  11 

421  equipment  @  S^jji  7 


32  47 

54  73 

16  42 

103 


COMPLETE  SET  OF  COST  ACCOUNTS  465 

17.  Oats,  23  Acres  — 1911 


Sept.   13 


18.     Oats,  22  Acres  — 1912 


Dec.    31 


Inventoried  at  cost 


2h 


103 


103 


62 
62 


466 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 
19.  Orchard,  3  Acres  — 1911 


Jan.       1 

Inventory  :  Spray  materials  on  hand 

7 

June   14 

1  bu.  buckwheat,  $1.00  ;   4  lb.  rape,  40«; ; 
f  lb.  cowhorn  turnips,  50 >5,  for  cover 

crop 

1 

90 

Nov.  25 

241  apple  barrels 

93 

10 

Dec.    15 

Freight  on  apples 

36 

05 

31 

Manure                                              6, 10 

,11 

10 

Use  of  land 

8 

30 

583  man  hours  @  21^  ^ 

14 

125 

35 

326  horse  hours  @  13fi 

11 

42 

38 

1 

326  equipment  hours  @  3^^?! 

7 

12 

71 

Interest  on  $328.49,  6  mo.  @  5% 

20.   Pasture,  43  Acres  — 1911 

13 

8 

21 

366 

70 

Dec.    31 

Use  of  land 

8 

90 

23  man  hours  @  21^»i 

14 

4 

95 

41  horse  hours  @  13^ 

11 

5 

33 

41  equipment  hours  @  d^^i 

21.    Wheat,  11  Acres  — 1911 

7 

1 

60 

101 

88 

Jan. 
July 
Sept. 

Oct. 

1 

1 

8 

12 

8 

Dec. 

31 

Inventory  —  cost  of  starting  crop 

Insurance 

Twine  and  cutting 

Coal  for  threshing 

Meals  for  threshers 

Threshing  203  bushels  @  4  ft 

Use  of  land 

99  man  hours  @  21^  ff 

45  horse  hours  @  13^ 

45  equipment  hours  @  3/g  ^ 

Interest  on  $169.56,  8  months,  5% 

Gain 


8 
14 
11 

7 
13 


117 
3 

10 

1 
8 
33 
21 
5 
1 

5^ 

208 

38 

247 


COMPLETE  SET  OF  COST  ACCOUNTS 
19.  Orchard,  3  Acres  — 1911 


467 


Dec.    15 


Dec.   31 


Fruit  used  in  house  : 
5  bu.  peaches,  $7.00  ;  2  bu.  pears,  $2.00  ; 
2  bu.  cherries,  $2.00 ;  42  bu.  apples, 
$33.95  25 

Apples  sold  at  various  dates  here  sum- 
marized to  save  space 

Inventory  apple  barrels 

Loss 


20.   Pasture,  43  Acres  — 1911 


44 


298 
12 

14 

355 
11 

09 
61 

366 

70 

95 


Oct.    23 

Received  for  pasturing  stock 
Pasture  used  by  horses 
Pasture  used  by  cows 

Loss 

11 
6 

15 
12 

68 

95 
6 

88 

101 

88 

21.    Wheat,  11  Acres— 1911 


Sept.  13 


40  bu.  seed  wheat  to  1912,  wheat  @ 

95^  22 

163  bu.  wheat  to  hens  @  95  i  10 

15  bu.  estimated,  not  threshed,  to  hens  10 

2  tons  straw  to  hens  10 

3  tons  straw  to  horses  11 
3  tons  straw  to  cows  6 


468 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


22.  Wheat,  22  Acres  — 1912 


1911 

Sept.  13 

40  bu.  seed  wheat 

21 

38 

18 

3000  lb.  bone  meal,  $51 ;   330  lb.  nitrate 

soda,  $9.60 

60 

60 

Dec.    31 

278  man  hours®  21  |*i 

14 

59 

77 

640  horse  hours  at  13«^ 

11 

83 

20 

640  equipment  hours  @  3j%^ 

7 

24 

96 

Interest  on  $266.53,  3  months  @  5% 

13 

3 

33 

269 

86 

23.  Wood  Lot,  26  Acres  — 1911 


April  7 
June  5 
Dec.   31 


1000  black  locusts 

Sawing  5000  ft.  lumber 

Use  of  land 

146  man  hours  @  21|  i 

166  horse  hours  @  Idi 

166  equipment  hours  @  3]^o?^ 

Gain 


6 

75 

15 

8 

52 

14 

31 

39 

11 

21 

58 

7 

6 

47 

133 

19 

34 

81 

168 

24.   Garden,  1  Acre  — 1911 


April     1 
Dec.    31 


Seeds 
Manure 
Use  of  land 
81  man  hours  ( 
54  horse  hours 


2m 
13^ 


54  equipment  hours  @  3^^^  f5 
Gain 


6, 10, 11 

5 

8 

5 

14 

17 

11 

7 

7 

2 

36 

40 

77 

COMPLETE  SET  OF  COST  ACCOUNTS 
22.  Wheat,  22  Acres— 1912 


469 


1911 
Dec.  31 

Inventoried  at  cost 

269 

86 

269 

86 

23.  Wood  Lot,  26  Acres  — 1911 


Mar.    15 


June     5 


Wood  sold 
Wood  for  hired-men 
Wood  for  liou.se,  personal 
5000  ft.  lumber  for  barn 


12 
14 
25 


3 

30 

10 

125 


168 


24.   Garden,  1  Acre  — 1911 


Oct.    31  '  Cabbage  to  hens  10 

Garden  products  for  house,  estimated    25 


2 
75 


77 


470 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 
25.    Personal,  — 1911 


This  account  is  summarized  to  save  space. 
The  year's  summaries  were  : 
2603  qt.  milk  from  cows 
Butter  and  cream  from  cows 
257^  doz.  eggs  from  hens 
34  cockerels 
4  hens  and  1  rooster 
Wood  from  wood  lot 
Fruit  from  orchard 
Garden  products 
Use  of  house 
Life  Insurance  paid 
Cash  living  expenses 
158  man  hours  @  21^  f5 
219  horse  hours  @,  13ff 
219  equipment  hours  @,  3^ff 


Summary  of  Gains  and  Losses 


e. 
6 

91 

6 

31 

10 

62 

10 

10 

10 

2 

23 

10 

19 

44 

24 

75 

8 

150 

102 

255 

14 

33 

11 

28 

7 

8 

905 

11 

37 
41 
05 
35 

95 


18 

97 
47 
54 
40 


Losses : 

Gains : 

Cattle 

201 

92 

Alfalfa  A 

187 

35 

Horses 

4 

41 

Buckwheat 

3 

20 

Labor 

7 

14 

Corn 

19 

66 

Orchard 

11  1  61 

Equipment 

1 

07 

Pasture 

6 

88 

Farm 

76 

51 

231 

96 

Hay 

615 

40 

Hens 

293 

32 

Interest 

536 

22 

Oats 

27 

83 

Wheat 

38 

89 

Wood  lot 

34 

81 

Net  gain  on  farm 

1642  I  61 

Garden 

40 

31 

1874     57 

1874     57 

Net  gain  on  farm 

Loss  on  personal 

Net  gain 


1642.61 

280.34 

1362.27 


The  gains  and  losses  on  horses,  labor,  and  equipment  have  no  significance, 
as  there  are  balances  due  to  the  rate  per  hour  being  a  fraction  over  or  under 
the  real  cost.  The  farm  balance  is  due  to  charging  a  little  more  as  rent  of 
buildings  and  land  than  these  cost.  The  gain  on  interest  should  represent 
interest  on  the  capital  owned.  It  is  a  little  low,  as  is  seen,  by  comparing 
with  the  inventory. 


COMPLETE  SET  OF  COST  ACCOUNTS 
25.    Personal,  — 1911 


471 


Oct.       1 
Dec.    31 


Board  furnished  to  laborers 
Estimated  value  of  owner's  labor 

Loss 


14 


25 
600 


625 

280 


905 


Summary  of  Inventory 


06 


06 
34 


40 


1911 

1912 

Resources : 

Cash 

4,226 

50 

39 

35 

Alfalfa  A 

309 

206 

Alfalfa  B 

173 

91 

Alfalfa  C 

12 

Cattle  and  feed 

1,162 

1,867 

Equipment 

723 

80 

977 

73 

Farm 

16,650 

19,600 

Hay 

83 

904 

50 

Hens'  feed,  etc. 

295 

80 

1,190 

40 

Horses  and  feed 

570 

1,325 

40 

Oats,  1911  crop 

117 

08 

Oats,  1912  crop 

103 

62 

Orchard 

7 

12 

Wheat,  1911  crop 

117 

82 

Wheat,  1912  crop 

269 

86 

24,262 

26,681 

77 

Liabilities 

11,000 

12,057 

50 

Present  worth 

13,262 

14,624 

27 

CJain  for  year 

1,362 

27 

r 

472  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

-  If  an  enterprise  fails  to  pay,  it  does  not  mean  that  that 
crop  or  animal  should  be  dropped.  A  study  of  the  account 
may  indicate  how  it  may  be  made  to  pay.  Sometimes 
the  trouble  is  that  the  area  or  number  of  animals  is  too 
small.""-  Instead  of  dropping  the  enterprise,  it  may  be  that 
it  should  be  increased  so  as  to  reduce  the  cost  of  produc- 
tion and  make  it  pay.  An  enterprise  that  regularly  shows 
a  loss  may  be  continued  if  the  loss  is  not  too  great  and  if 
nothing  better  can  be  found  to  do.  The  enterprise  may  be 
paying  less  than  the  labor  cost,  but  if  it  pays  other  ex- 
penses and  something  for  man  and  horse  labor,  it  is  better 
than  doing  nothing.  However,  it  is  not  often  that  any 
enterprise  should  be  continued  that  does  not  pay  wages. 
In  nearly  all  cases,  it  may  be  changed  or  something  else 
substituted  that  will  pay. 

-  In  interpreting  results,  one  must  consider  whether  the 
season  and  other  conditions  have  been  normal.  - 

In  short,  cost  accounts  are  used  as  a  means  of  studying 
one's  business.  The  cost  of  production  and  the  profit 
or  loss  are  only  a  small  part  of  the  results. 

277.  Results  on  Crops.  —  The  table  on  the  opposite 
page  shows  some  of  the  main  facts  about  each  crop  in  this 
set  of  accounts. 

The  alfalfa  has  been  the  most  profitable  crop  on  the 
farm,  both  per  acre  and  for  the  time  spent  on  it.  Alfalfa 
paid  all  expenses  and  had  left  90  cents  for  each  hour  spent 
on  it.  Or  since  the  value  of  labor  has  already  been  counted 
out,  w(^  may  say  that  it  paid  all  expenses  except  labor  and 
had  left  $1.11  for  each  hour  of  labor. 

The  cost  of  starting  the  crop  after  a  summer  fallow  is  very 
high.  The  three  acres  in  field  B  cost  nearly  .S58  per  acre  for 
manure,  seed,  labor,  use  of  land,  etc.  When  seeded  in  oats 
in  field  C  without  manure,  the  cost  was  $5  per  acre.     This 


COMPLETE  SET  OF  COST  ACCOUNTS 


473 


Timothy 

Alfalfa 

Hay 

Oats 

Wheat 

Orchard 

Total  acres 

7.75 

67.4 

23 

11 

3 

Total  yield  .     . 

20  tons 

94  tons 

668  bu. 

218  bu. 

247  bbl. 

Yield  per  acre 

2.6  tons 

1.4  tons 

29  bu. 

20  bu. 

82  bbl. 

Total  value  of 

crop     . 

.$400.00 

$1742.55 

$406.00 

$247.10 

$343.09 

Value  per  acre 

$51.61 

$25.85 

$17.65 

$22.46 

$114.36 

Total  cost   .     . 

$212.65 

$1127.15 

$378.17 

$208.21 

$366.70 

Cost  per  acre  . 

$27.44 

$16.72 

$16.44 

$18.93 

$122.23 

Cost    per    ton, 

bu.,  or  bbl.    . 

$10.63 

$12.00 

$.571 

$.961 

$1.48 

Profit      .     .     . 

$187.35 

$615.40 

$27.83 

$38.89 

loss 

Profit  per  acre 

$24.17 

$9.13 

$1.21 

$3.54 

Profit  per  man 

hour    .     .     . 

$.90 

$.56 

$.07 

$.16 

No.  man  hours 

per  acre  . 

27. 

16. 

18. 

22. 

194. 

No.  horse  hours 

per  acre  .     . 

25. 

16. 

29. 

23. 

109. 

No.  man  hours 

to  raise  a  ton, 

bu.,  or  bbl.  . 

10. 

12. 

0.6 

1.1 

2.4 

No.  horse  hours 

to  raise  a  ton, 

bu.,  or  bbl.   . 

10. 

12. 

1. 

1.2 

1.3 

1  Notice  that  the  grain  does  not  have  to  be  worth  the  cost  per  bushel 
in  order  to  come  out  even,  because  the  straw  has  a  considerable  value. 
This  value  was  not  counted  in  figuring  the  cost  per  bushel.  The  hours  of 
work  on  wheat  and  oats  do  not  include  the  cutting,  because  this  was  hired 
done.  The  cost  of  starting  wheat  includes  141  man  hours  and  211 
horse  hours. 

seeding  succeeded  fairly  well.  By  this  means,  the  farmer 
expects  to  save  at  least  $30  per  acre  in  starting  the  crop. 

Buckwheat  was  grown  on  a  small  field  that  was  being 
cleared.  It  did  very  well  indeed  to  pay  for  the  w^ork  done 
on  this  field. 

The  corn  was  grown  by  a  neighbor  for  half  the  crop.  It 
paid  for  the  work  of  hauling  in  and  husking  and  $9  per  acre 
for  the  use  of  the  land. 


474  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

Timothy  hay  paid  very  well,  both  per  acre  and  for  the 
time  spent  on  it.  The  crop  was  fertilized  and  would  yield 
more  in  a  good  year,  but  the  low  yield  was  offset  by  a  high 
price.  About  half  the  time  spent  on  this  crop  was  spent 
in  harvesting  it. 

The  oats  and  wheat  both  paid  in  spite  of  the  poor  year. 
The  time  spent  on  these  was  a  little  high,  because  they 
were  grown  in  small  fields  of  about  five  acres.  The  farmer 
has  now  remedied  this  trouble  by  combining  fields.  These 
crops  were  hired  cut,  so  that  the  hours  of  labor  do  not  in- 
clude cutting. 

The  loss  on  the  orchard  was  due  to  low  prices  received 
for  the  crop  on  account  of  overproduction  of  apples.  The 
cost  of  $1.48  per  barrel  is  an  indication  of  what  would  be 
required  to  make  them  pay.  It  is  interesting  to  notice 
that  the  time  spent  on  one  acre  of  orchard  is  equal  to  that 
spent  on  twelve  acres  of  timothy  or  on  seven  acres  of  al- 
falfa. 

278.  Cattle.  —  The  only  serious  loss  was  on  cattle. 
This  was  the  second  year  that  they  showed  a  loss  on  this 
farm,  yet  the  farmer  did  not  sell  them  because  the  account 
shows  the  trouble  to  be  things  that  can  be  remedied.  Part 
of  it  is  due  to  high-priced  feed,  but  more  is  due  to  other 
causes.  One  heifer  died  and  $50  was  lost  on  one  pure- 
bred cow  that  was  condemned  for  tuberculosis.  Five  cows 
were  giving  milk  during  the  year.  The  labor  on  cattle 
was  1249  man  hours.  If  we  ignore  the  young  stock,  this 
was  250  hours  per  cow.  This  may  be  remedied,  not  by 
going  out  of  the  cow  business,  but  by  keeping  more  cows. 
It  takes  as  long  to  go  to  the  pasture  for  five  cows  as  for  20. 
By  keeping  10  to  15  cows,  the  man  labor  can  be  reduced  to 
about  150-175  hours  per  cow  per  year.  Four  grade  heifers 
were  valued  at  $95  at  the  beginning  of  the  year  and  at  $165 


COMPLETE  SET  OF  COST  ACCOUNTS  475 

at  the  end  of  the  year.  At  the  prices  of  feed,  it  probably 
cost  SI 50  for  feed  for  these  for  the  year,  whereas  they  in- 
creased in  value  only  $70.  Where  feed  is  so  high  in  price, 
it  is  better  to  buy  grade  cows  or  raise  pure-breds.  Instead  of 
going  out  of  the  cow  business,  the  farmer  decided  to  keep 
more  cows  so  as  to  reduce  the  labor  cost  per  cow  and  to 
stop  raising  any  grade  heifers. 

279.  Hens.  —  The  hens  paid  all  expenses  and  left  a 
profit  of  42  cents  per  hour  of  man  labor.  They  laid  about  8 
dozen  eggs  apiece.  The  eggs  brought  an  average  of  about 
25  cents  per  dozen.  It  took  about  l\  hours  to  take  care 
of  a  hen  for  a  year  and  took  about  50  minutes  of  time  on 
chickens  for  each  pullet  raised.  This  is  doing  very  well 
indeed.  The  cockerels  nearly  paid  the  cost  of  raising 
chickens  except  the  food.  The  accounts  do  not  give  the 
food  cost,  but  this  was  about  $1  in  a  previous  year,  so  that 
the  pullets  cost  about  $1  each  on  this  farm. 

280.  Horses.  —  The  horses  worked  on  an  average  of 
about  4  hours  a  day  for  the  year,  or  4.6  hours  if  we  allow  for 
the  time  before  some  of  them  were  purchased.  The  cost  per 
hour  was  13  cents  or  $2.60  for  a  ten-hour  day  of  a  team. 
This  is  very  reasonable  when  feed  is  so  high,  but  both  of 
these  might  be  improved.  Making  no  allowance  for  the 
colts,  it  took  about  179  hours  to  take  care  of  a  horse  a 
year.  Calling  the  colt  equal  to  half  a  horse,  the  cost  of 
feed  was  at  the  rate  of  about  $130  per  horse.  The  total 
cost  of  horses  was  $766,  or  $192  per  horse.  It  will  be  seen 
that  a  team  of  horses  costs  more  than  a  man  for  the  time 
it  works.  This  cost  is,  of  course,  much  lower  when  feed 
is  worth  less. 

•  The  colt  increased  in  value  from  $40  to  $75.  This  is 
probably  not  half  enough  to  pay  for  its  feed  for  a  year. 
The  colt  increased  rather  than  decreased  the  cost  of  the 


470  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

horse  labor.  TIk  ro  was  also  a  loss  of  a  $15  sorvic(;  fee  and 
of  the  risk,  feed,  and  time  lost  by  a  mare  that  gave  birth 
to  a  dead  colt.  The  farmer  decided  to  raise  no  more  colts 
except  such  as  would  be  worth  high  prices  when  grown, 
because  feed  in  this  region  is  too  expensive  for  anything 
but  high-priced  colts. 

281.  Equipment  cost  $239  for  the  year.  This  is  a  cost 
of  $1.99  for  each  acre  of  crops  harvested,  or  a  cost  of  Sy^o- 
cents  for  each  hour  of  horse  labor.  Both  of  these  are 
reasonable  costs,  probably  much  below  the  average  for  the 
state.  The  cost  of  equipment  was  21  per  cent  of  the  value 
of  equipment  on  hand  at  the  beginning  of  the  year  or  pur- 
chased during  the  year.  This,  again,  is  a  moderate  figure, 
but  one  should  strive  to  reduce  these  costs.  On  some  farms 
in  Minnesota,  the  machinery  costs  are  about  half  as  much, 
but  the  costs  of  housing  machinery  and  of  oil  do  not  seem 
to  be  included.     (See  page  357.) 

The  chief  reason  for  the  difference  is  the  greater  area  of 
each  kind  of  crops  grown  on  the  Minnesota  farms  so  that 
the  machinery  is  used  more. 

282.  Other  uses  of  accounts.  —  By  keeping  the  work 
report,  as  shown  on  page  442,  it  is  possible  to  find  the  time 
required  for  each  operation  and  the  cost  of  operation. 
Such  information  is  of  very  frequent  use  in  planning 
farm  work.  It  is  often  desirable  to  know  how  long  to 
allow  for  a  certain  kind  of  work.  By  comparing  different 
years,  one  can  see  where  he  is  improving  in  the  use  of  labor. 
Often  the  cost  of  an  operation  is  an  aid  in  business  transac- 
tions. For  instance,  this  farmer  had  occasion  to  use  the 
cost  of  baling  hay  in  determining  at  what  price  to  sell  \% 
unbaled.  Twice  he  had  occasion  to  use  the  cost  of  har- 
vesting wheat  in  making  purchases  of  growing  wheat. 
The  time  at  which  different  operations  were  done  on  pre- 


COMPLETE  SET  OF  COUT  ACCOUNTS  477 

vious  years  is  often  of  interest  and  value  These  are  but 
a  few  of  the  great  variety  of  uses  that  are  made  of  such 
records. 

DETAILS    OF    THIS   AND    OTHER   METHODS    OF    ACCOUNTING 
AND    PRINCIPLES    INVOLVED 

283.  Kinds  of  books  or  record  sheets.  —  Loose  leaf 
ledgers  or  card  index  methods  of  accounting  are  more  or 
less  used.  In  the  great  majority  of  cases,  those  who  have 
tried  both  methods  prefer  books.  Cards  or  loose  leaves 
are  too  easily  misplaced.  The  writer  designed  a  loose  leaf 
record  system  for  farming,  but  after  two  years'  use  dis- 
carded it  for  the  ordinary  forms  of  books. 

No  special  forms  of  any  sort  are  needed  for  farm  records. 
An  ordinary  account  book,  ruled  with  four  columns  at  the 
right,  is  the  best  possible  form  of  work  report.  Man  hours 
and  horse  hours  are  written  at  the  head  of  the  columns. 
Such  a  book  has  room  for  man  hours  and  minutes,  and 
horse  hours  and  minutes.  In  one  part  of  the  book  a  few 
extra  lines  are  drawn  on  12  pages  to  make  a  chore  report. 
A  book  about  8  X  12  inches  is  good  shape.  It  is  large 
enough  to  allow  plenty  of  room  for  writing  in  the  kind 
of  work.  The  columns  are  long  for  convenience  in  adding 
and  for  easier  reference,  as  the  year's  work  on  most  crops 
can  be  put  on  1  to  4  pages.  It  is  long  enough  so  that  a 
month's  chores  can  be  put  on  one  page.     (See  page  442. ) 

A  book  of  the  same  shape  is  the  best  for  a  ledger  of 
accounts.  The  books  usually  called  ledgers  are  not  satis- 
factory, because  there  is  not  room  to  write  full  descriptions 
of  transactions.  The  best  form  has  a  page  about  8  inches 
wide  and  uses  the  left  page  for  charges  and  the  right  page 
for  credits  rather  than  divide  the  page.  No  attention 
need  be  given  to  the  name  printed  on  the  cover  of  the 


478  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

book.  All  that  is  needed  is  place  for  date,  wide  space  for 
writing,  and  a  column  for  dollars  and  one  for  cents.  In 
some  kinds  of  bookkeeping,  little  space  is  needed  in  the 
ledger,  but  for  cost  accounting  one  needs  a  wide  book  so 
that  when  he  opens  it  to  study  an  account,  he.  will  have  a 
full  description  of  all  transactions  without  having  to  refer 
to  any  other  place.  The  mere  statement  of  total  costs  and 
total  receipts  has  little  value.  One  must  study  details 
before  he  can  come  to  wise  conclusions  as  to  how  to  re- 
organize the  business; 

For  the  above  reason,  the  many  column  ledgers,  with  the 
kind  of  expense  at  the  head  of  the  column,  are  not  adapted 
to  cost  accounting.  They  do  not  allow  room  for  full  state- 
ments. For  instance,  feed  purchased  for  cows  should  show 
in  the  cow  account  the  pounds  and  the  kind  of  feed,  as 
well  as  the  cost.  The  farmer  refers  to  the  amount  and 
kind  of  feed  as  frequently  as  to  the  cost.  All  details  must 
be  included  in  the  ledger  to  make  the  accounts  most 
valuable. 

284.  Journals  and  day  books.  —  The  book  known  as  a 
journal  is  little  used  in  any  business ;  it  is  wholly  out  of 
place  on  a  farm.  The  farmer  has  work  enough  to  do  with- 
out writing  down  his  transactions  three  or  four  times  over. 
For  the  same  reason,  the  day  book  is  useless.  The  object 
of  a  day  book  is  to  have  a  book  where  transactions  can  be 
written  down  quickly  without  keeping  another  customer 
waiting.  Business  men  who  keep  their  own  accounts, 
and  who  have  time  after  each  transaction  to  enter  it  in  a 
ledger,  once  for  all,  rarely  use  a  day  book.  The  farmer  has 
just  as  much  time  to  enter  items  in  the  ledger  at  once  as 
later.  If  ho  keeps  both  a  day  book  and  ledger,  his  account- 
ing will  soon  end,  because  ho  will  got  so  far  behind  with  his 
posting  that  he  will  give  it  up.     The  original  entry  ledger, 


COMPLETE  SET  OF  COST  ACCOUNTS  479 

as  illustrated  in  the  set  of  accounts,  is  the  sensible  way 
of  keeping  accounts  on  an  ordinary  farm.  The  items  are 
entered  once  for  all.     They  never  have  to  be  rewritten. 

285.  Double  or  single  entry.  —  If  a  complete  set  of 
accounts  is  kept,  as  illustrated  on  the  preceding  pages,  it 
will  be  by  the  double  entry  method  if  a  cash  account  is 
kept,  as  this  is  the  only  account  lacking.  On  most  farms, 
over  three-fourths  of  the  transactions  are  cash.  By  omit- 
ting the  cash  account,  such  items  are  written  once  instead 
of  twice.  If  this  account  is  omitted,  the  work  is  reduced 
by  one-third.  The  cash  account  adds  practically  nothing 
to  the  value  of  the  book.  The  time  spent  in  keeping  it  is 
better  employed  if  spent  in  a  more  careful  study  of  the 
separate  accounts,  or  it  may  be  spent  in  raising  some  more 
crops.  The  argument  for  keeping  the  cash  account  is  that 
the  cash  on  hand  may  be  checked  with  this  account  and 
that  the  total  debits  in  all  accounts  can  be  checked  with 
the  total  credits.  These  are  very  important  considerations 
when  one  is  doing  ordinary  bookkeeping,  but  are  of  no  par- 
ticular value  in  a  set  of  cost  accounts.  Cost  accounts 
cannot  be  exact.  ^-They  are  full  of  estimates.-  It  is  foolish 
to  spend  time  with  the  refinements  in  methods  of  book- 
keeping that  are  designed  to  check  exact  work  to  the  last 
cent. 

When  the  farmer  and  his  wife  spend  money  out  of  the 
same  pocketbook  for  personal  expenses  and  the  farm,  it  is 
almost  impossible  to  make  the  cash  check  exactly,  as  some 
items  are  almost  certain  to  be  omitted.  It  does  not  matter 
if  some  small  errors  do  occur.  In  fact,  it  is  attempts  to 
find  insignificant  errors  that  often  disgust  persons  with  the 
whole  question  of  accounting. 

When  a  cash  account  is  not  kept,  there  is  a  means  of 
checking  the  whole  set  of  accounts  at  the  end  of  the  year. 


480  rARM  MANAGEMENT 

The  gain  or  loss  as  shown  by  the  inventory  should  be  the 
same  as  that  shown  by  the  sum  of  the  gains  or  losses  of  the 
separate  accounts.  If  one  is  doing  a  good  farm  business, 
an  error  of  $25  or  $50  or  so  in  a  year  need  not  bother  him, 
because  it  is  most  likely  made  up  of  small  items  that  were 
omitted  from  the  personal  expenses.  It  is  not  likely  that 
it  would  change  his  conclusions  on  any  farm  enterprise. 

The  writer  kept  farm  accounts  by  double  entry  methods 
for  three  years,  and  for  three  years  has  used  the  method 
here  recommended.  The  omission  of  the  cash  account  and 
the  freedom  from  attempts  to  make  the  accounts  balance 
saves  half  the  work  and  nearly  ail  the  worry.  At  the  end 
of  the  year,  the  error  is  not  serious  enough  to  cause  any 
wrong  conclusions  as  to  how  to  reorganize  the  business. 
He  would  not  think  of  going  back  to  double  entry  methods. 
This  method  is  now  being  used  by  a  considerable  number 
of  farmers  with  good  results. 

Some  farmers  go  one  step  farther  and  omit  all  personal 
expenses.  At  the  end  of  the  year,  the  summary  of  gains 
and  losses  will  then  show  a  greater  gain  than  actually 
occurred.  The  inventory  will  show  the  real  gain.  The 
difference  is  the  personal  expenses.  The  writer  believes 
that  personal  expenses,  as  well  as  business  expenses,  should 
be  studied,  and  so  favors  keeping  such  an  account. 

If  one  is  managing  a  farm  for  another,  he  must,  of 
course,  keep  a  cash  account  and  keep  it  accurately,  in 
order  to  give  an  account  of  the  money.  The  same  is  true  if 
one  is  renting  land  and  shares  receipts  and  expenses  with 
the  landlord. 

286.  Index.  —  Tape  fastened  to  the  pages  and  marked 
with  the  name  of  the  account  makes  the  work  of  listing 
accounts  very  much  less.  A  box  of  gummed  tape  that 
costs  10  cents  will  be  enough  to  last  for  many  years,  or 


COMPLETE  SET  OF  COST  ACCOUNTS 


481 


strips  of  cloth  may  be  used.  When  the  account  extends 
over  several  pages,  the  index  may  be  cut  off  and  a  new  one 
put  on  at  the  new  place. 

287.  Other  forms  of  work  reports.  —  There  are  three 
general  forms  of  work  reports.  The  report  may  be  kept 
in  the  form  of  a  diary  that  includes  man  and  horse 
hours. 


i 

Man  HoaRS      Horse  Hours 

Nov.,  1912   1 

1  Husked  corn 
Plowed  for  oats 

2  Hauled  hay  for  cows 
Plowed  for  oats 

9 

9 

10 

9 

18 
27 
20 
27 

This  form  of  work  report  contains  all  the  facts,  but  at 
the  end  of  the  month  or  year  the  work  must  be  sorted  out 
by  crops  and  animals.  It  bears  the  same  relation  to  the 
form  given  on  page  442  as  a  day  book  does  to  a  ledger. 
It  has  all  the  facts  in  order  of  days  rather  than  in  order  of 
subjects.  It  is  sometimes  convenient  to  have  a  man  keep 
his  time  in  this  form  when  some  one  else  is  to  do  the  post- 
ing. A  chore  report  is  kept  on  a  separa.te  page  like  that 
on  page  442. 

Sometimes  no  chore  report  is  kept.  The  chores  are  then 
estimated  once  a  week  or  once  a  month.  The  daily  report  is 
usually  preferable. 

Another  form  much  like  this  is  to  have  a  sheet  for  each 
day  like  the  following.  There  are  a  few  occasions  when  this 
is  desirable.  Such  sheets  are  likely  to  be  lost.  They 
must  be  summarized  or  transferred  the  same  as  the  diary 
form.  A  very  few  farms  have  conditions  that  make  this  a 
satisfactory  form. 
2i 


482 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


Daily 

Work 
Chores 

Report. 

Sheep hr jnin. 

Personal.  _- 

-.hr..._ 

min 

Horses Jir min. 

Cows 

...Jir.__ 

min 

Hens hr min. 

Hogs 

.__Jir.._. 

min 

ir min. 

— hr-- 

-_.min 

Man 

Horse 

Kind  of  Work 

Hre. 

Min. 

Hrs. 

Min. 

Name Date. 


191 


Another  form  of  work  report  uses  one  sheet  a  month  and 
gives  the  time  spent  on  each  enterprise,  but  does  not  give 
the  kind  of  work. 


Hay 

Oats 

Corn 

Wheat 

Cows 

Horses 

Nov.  1912 

Man 

Horse 

Man 

Horse 

Man 

Horse 

Man 

Horse 

Man 

Horse 

Man 

Horse 

1 
2 

9 
9 

27 

27 

9 

18 

10 

20 

COMPLETE  SET  OF  COST  ACCOUNTS  483 

There  is  only  one  objection  to  this  form.  It  does  not 
tell  the  kind  of  work.  When  one  begins  to  study  his 
business,  he  is  not  satisfied  to  know  only  the  hours  re- 
quired on  a  crop.  He  wants  the  details,  so  that  whenever 
he  desires,  he  can  find  the  rate  of  plowing,  the  rate  of  cul- 
tivating, etc.  Frequently,  this  information  is  used  in 
planning  farm  work,  and  in  many  other  ways.  Moreover, 
the  work  report  is  a  valuable  reference  book  for  use  in 
looking  up  dates  on  which  certain  things  were  done  in 
previous  years. 

The  form  given  on  page  442  gives  all  the  facts,  and  sorts 
them  by  enterprises,  so  that  one  may  turn  to  the  work 
report  on  oats  and  have  all  the  year's  work  on  that  crop 
before  him.  In  putting  down  the  same  facts  listed  above, 
one  would  turn  to  the  list  of  work  on  oats  and  put  down 
the  time  spent  in  plowing.  He  would  then  turn  to  the  corn 
page  and  put  down  the  time  spent  in  husking.  This  has 
a  further  advantage  over  the  diary  form  in  that  the  name 
of  the  crop  does  not  have  to  be  written.  On  a  farm  where 
the  work  is  done  by  two  or  three  persons,  the  time  spent  in 
keeping  such  a  work  report  requires  one  to  five  minutes  a 
day.  The  form  on  page  442  is  preferred  by  the  majority 
of  farmers. 

The  work  report  and  ledger  may  be  combined  in  one 
book.  The  left-hand  page  is  then  used  for  labor  and  cash 
costs  as  shown  on  page  484.  The  right-hand  page  is  used 
for  credits,  the  same  as  in  the  ordinary  ledger.  At  the 
end  of  the  year  the  total  hours  of  man  and  horse  labor  are 
charged  in  the  dollar  and  cents  columns. 

Another  similar  method  is  to  use  the  left-hand  page  for 
work  and  put  both  costs  and  receipts  on  the  right-hand 
page.  This  requires  four  columns  on  each  page,  the  usual 
ruling  in  account  books.     The  two  right-hand  columns  of 


484 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


the  right-hand  page  are  used  for  receipts, 
next  left  of  these  are  used  for  costs. 


The  columns 


1912 

Oats— 1912  — 38  Acres 

Man 

Horse 

Costs 

Hr. 

Min. 

Hr. 

Min. 

Jan.  1 
Mar.  5 
Mar.  6 
April  5 
April  6 
April  6 
April  8 

Seed  oats  on  hand  95  bu. 

Farmed 

Farmed 

Disked 

2^  tons  fertilizer 

Hauling  fertilizer 

Disked 

6 
9 
9 

5 

9 

30 

15 
30 

36 

10 
38 

30 

$74 
68 

30 

288.  Estimating  values.  —  Values  used  in  cost  accounts 
should  be  such  as  could  be  realized  if  the  product  were  sold 
in  a  normal  way ;  that  is,  at  normal  sale  prices,  rather  than 
at  high  prices  or  at  forced  sale  prices.  When  feed  raised 
on  the  farm  is  charged  to  animals,  it  should  be  charged 
at  its  sale  value  less  the  cost  of  hauling  to  market.  Hay 
one  mile  from  town  is  worth  more  than  hay  10  miles  from 
town.  Manure  should  be  credited  to  animals  at  what  it 
is  worth  at  the  barn.  The  cost  of  hauling  should  be 
charged  to  the  crop,  as  the  distance  to  haul  is  one  of  the 
factors  that  determines  the  profit  in  growing  a  particular 
crop  on  a  particular  field.  The  stock  is  not  to  blame  if 
this  field  is  far  away  or  near  by. 

289.  Accounts  with  fields.  --t&Sometimes  it  is  desirable  to 
keep  the  accounts  by  fields  rather  than  by  crops.  —The  costs 
on  very  different  soils  or  fields  of  different  distances  from 
the  barn  are  very  different.  There  may  then  be  accounts 
with  oats  on  field  1  and  on  field  2.  This  makes  a  little  more 
work  if  there  are  more  fields  than  crops.  If  one  field  is  part 
in  one  crop  and  part  in  another,  it  is  counted  as  two  fields. 


COMPLETE  SET  OF  COST  ACCOUNTS  485 

290.  Farm  account.  —  The  farm  account  includes  only 
part  of  the  real  estate  value.  Fall  plowing  done  for  oats, 
a  growing  winter  wheat  crop,  or  the  cost  of  starting  an 
alfalfa  crop  are  charged  to  the  respective  crops  and  are  so 
inventoried,  yet  these  values  are  sold  when  the  farm  is 
sold.  The  distinction  as  to  just  what  is  real  estate  has 
no  particular  significance  to  the  farmer,  except  when  he 
wishes  to  sell  a  farm. 

Costs  of  repairs,  taxes,  improvements,  etc.,  are  charged 
to  the  farm  account.  If  the  repairs  and  improvements 
have  not  more  than  maintained  the  value  of  the  place,  the 
account  should  about  balance.  The  use  of  buildings  for 
persons,  stock,  crops,  and  equipment,  and  the  use  of  land 
by  crops,  are  credited  to  the  farm  and  charged  to  the 
various  accounts.  These  charges  should  be  just  high 
enough  to  cover  repairs,  depreciation,  insurance,  taxes, 
interest  on  the  money  invested  in  the  land,  and  other  ex- 
penses of  maintenance.  If  the  improvements  have  in- 
creased the  value  of  the  place,  the  value  of  the  farm  is 
given  a  higher  figure  in  the  inventory  at  the  end  of  the 
year.  One  should  be  careful  about  increasing  the  farm 
value,  as  improvements  in  one  way  may  only  offset  depre- 
ciation in  another. 

Usually  the  enterprises  that  use  buildings  should  pay 
interest  on  the  money  invested  in  buildings  and  3  to  5  per 
cent  for  repairs,  insurance,  and  other  costs. 

Crops  should  pay  rent  for  land  at  a  rate  that  will  cover 
interest,  taxes,  and  other  land  costs. 

291.  Manure  and  fertilizer.  —  Manure  may  be 
credited  to  the  animals  and  charged  to  the  crops  that 
receive  it.  The  labor  of  hauling  is  best  charged  to  the 
crop.  If  the  crop  is  an  annual  one,  part  of  the  value  of 
manure  and  the  labor  of  hauling  it  should  be  carried  to  the 


486  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

succeeding  crop.  The  most  convenient  way  of  doing  this 
is  to  inventory  the  estimated  residual  value,  and  at  the  end 
of  the  year  credit  this  value  to  the  crop  and  charge  to  the 
succeeding  crop.  What  proportion  of  the  manure  should 
be  carried  along  varies  with  the  soil  and  many  other  con- 
ditions. With  loam  or  clay  soils,  a  fair  distribution  in 
a  four-year  rotation  in  which  manure  is  used  but  once 
might  be  40  per  cent  to  the  first  crop,  30  per  cent  to  the 
second,  20  per  cent  to  the  third,  and  10  per  cent  to  the 
fourth  crop  after  applying  manure. 

Another  way  of  handling  the  manure  account  is  to  charge 
it  to  the  farm  and  then  charge  the  crop  a  high  enough  rental 
for  use  of  land  to  cover  the  cost  of  manure  as  well  as  regular 
rental.  The  crops  nearest  the  manure  in  the  rotation  then 
pay  the  highest  rental. 

Still  another  way  is  to  charge  it  to  the  field.  The 
easiest  method  is  to  charge  to  the  crop  and  at  the  end  of  the 
year  credit  the  crop  with  part  of  the  manure  and  carry  to 
the  next  year's  crop. 

With  perennial  crops,  the  residual  value  may  ordinarily 
be  ignored,  because  if  a  constant  amount  is  applied  from 
year  to  year,  the  residue  of  one  year's  application  is  about 
equal  to  the  residue  of  a  previous  year's  that  is  used 
up. 

If  heavy  applications  of  fertilizer  are  used,  part  of  the 
cost  may  be  credited  to  the  crop  at  the  end  of  the  year  and 
carried  on  to  a  succeeding  year.  If  only  light  applications 
are  made,  they  may  be  all  charged  to  the  year's  crop. 

292.  Equipment.  —  The  easiest  way  of  finding  the 
equipment  cost  is  to  keep  one  account  with  all  machinery 
and  equipment.  This  cost  may  then  be  apportioned 
among  the  different  enterprises  in  proportion  to  the  number 
of  hours  of  horse  labor.     In  the  majority  of  cases,  this  has 


COMPLETE  SET  OF  COST  ACCOUNTS  487 

been  found  to  charge  each  enterprise  with  its  proper  share 
of  the  cost.  However,  one  must  be  careful  in  all  special 
cases.  For  instance,  one  might  have  a  lot  of  incubators 
and  special  poultry  equipment,  and  yet  horses  may  do  little 
work  for  hens.  In  such  a  case,  the  special  poultry  equip- 
ment should  be  kept  in  the  hen  account  as  was  done  in 
this  set  of  accounts.  Hens  also  had  to  pay  a  small  amount 
for  the  use  of  general  farm  equipment.  One  may  have  a 
large  amount  of  equipment  for  a  crop  that  he  grows  little 
of.  This  makes  the  real  cost  of  equipment  out  of  propor- 
tion to  the  area  of  the  crop. 

A  little  judgment  in  using  the  method  will  usually  make 
it  safe  to  charge  equipment  in  this  way.  We  must  also 
remember  that  cost  accounting  does  not  expect  to  get  ab- 
solutely accurate  results.  It  does  not  pay  to  spend  too 
much  time  trying  to  avoid  small  errors  that  will  not  affect 
one's  conclusions. 

293.  Labor.  —  Man  and  horse  labor  are  charged  to  each 
enterprise  at  the  same  rate  of  pay,  unless  special  labor  is 
hired  at  a  special  rate,  as  in  harvest,  when  it  may  be 
charged  directly  to  the  crop.  The  time  of  yearly  men  costs 
less  per  month  in  the  winter,  but  actually  costs 
more  per  hour  than  in  summer,  because  the  days  are  so 
much  shorter.  It  is  not  desirable  to  charge  this  labor  at 
different  rates,  because  we  are  trying  to  find  which  enter- 
prises pay  higher  wages. 

294.  Horses.  —  On  most  farms,  horses  are  kept  pri- 
marily for  work.  The  best  way  to  handle  this  account  is  to 
find  the  total  cost  of  horse  labor  and  distribute  this  cost 
among  the  different  farm  enterprises  in  proportion  to  the 
time  spent  on  them.  If  colts  are  raised,  they  are  for  the 
purpose  of  reducing  the  cost  of  horse  labor.  Only  in  very 
rare  instances  do  we  find  farms  where  pure-bred  or  fancy 


488  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

colts  pay  the  cost  of  horse  work.  In  the  rare  cases  where 
horses  are  kept  primarily  to  raise  colts  to  sell,  the  horse 
labor  may  be  charged  at  a  reasonable  rate  and  horses 
credited  with  this  work.  The  loss  or  gain  on  horses  is 
then  determined. 

295.  Hay  seed.  —  If  one  is  raising  a  fairly  constant 
area  of  alfalfa,  timothy,  or  other  long-lived  plant,  he  may 
keep  a  single  account  with  the  crop.  The  seed  purchased 
for  next  year's  crop  can  then  be  charged  to  this  account, 
although  it  is  really  seed  for  future  years.  The  crop 
should  then  pay  for  about  so  much  seed  each  year.  If 
one  prefers,  he  may  run  an  account  with  each  year's  seed- 
ing separately.  In  the  set  of  accounts  given,  the  alfalfa 
fields  are  kept  separate,  but  only  one  timothy  account  is 
kept.  With  annual  crops,  it  is  better  to  open  a  separate 
account  for  each  year's  crop. 

296.  Double  cropping.  —  When  more  than  one  crop  is 
grown  on  the  same  field  at  the  same  time,  as  when  potatoes 
are  grown  in  a  young  orchard,  the  accounting  becomes  dif- 
ficult. But  if  one  is  not  prejudiced  in  favor  of  either  crop, 
he  can  arrive  at  a  fair  estimate.  If  he  is  prejudiced,  his 
results  in  this,  or  any  other  work  on  cost  accounting,  will 
be  useless.  For  instance,  some  persons  have  credited  the 
orchard  with  the  value  of  the  crop  grown  between  the  rows 
of  trees,  in  order  to  learn  what  it  costs  to  grow  an  orchard. 
In  one  case  that  has  been  quoted  to  considerable  extent  by 
pomologists,  the  bean  crop  grown  in  a  young  apple  orchard 
more  than  paid  for  all  costs  of  raising  both  crops.  Hence 
the  apple  orchard  showed  a  very  nice  profit  when  it  had  not 
borne  an  apple.  By  this  erroneous  method  of  figuring, 
the  apple  orchard  cost  nothing ;  but  if  all  the  land  had 
been  in  beans,  there  would  have  been  no  spraying  or  prun- 
ing, the  cultivation  would  have  taken  less  time,  and  the 


COMPLETE  SET  OF  COST  ACCOUNTS  489 

beuii  crop  would  have  been  much  larger.  InsteaSTof  being 
an  argument  for  going  into  the  apple  business,  these 
results  are  an  argument  for  going  into  the  bean  business. 
Beans  paid  so  well  that  they  were  able  to  carry  an  apple 
orchard  and  yet  pay.  If  one  who  figures  in  this  way  is 
asked  what  it  costs  to  grow  an  apple  orchard,  he  would 
have  to  say  that  it  depends  on  the  price  of  beans. 

The  fair  way  to  estimate  the  cost  of  an  orchard  is  to 
divide  the  work,  land,  and  fertilizer  between  the  two  crops. 
The  proportion  of  the  area  in  the  crop  should  be  estimated. 
This  is  not  necessarily  all  the  land  planted  to  the  crop,  be- 
cause the  trees  may  injure  it.  The  proportion  of  the  time 
and  fertilizer  that  the  crop  required  should  be  charged  to 
the  crop.     The  remaining  charges  should  go  to  the  orchard. 

A  more  useful  way  of  figuring,  if  one  has  a  limited  area, 
is  to  determine  what  he  would  make  if  all  the  land  were  in 
crops,  and  compare  it  with  what  he  does  make  when  part 
of  the  land  is  in  apples.  This  may  be  unfair  to  the  orchard, 
but  it  points  to  the  proper  line  of  action.  The  farmer  de- 
sires that  combination  of  crops  which  pays  best.  Merely 
because  some  crop  pays  is  not  sufficient  reason  for  growing 
it,  if  there  is  something  else  that  pays  better. 

297.  Interest.  —  Interest  paid  out  is  put  on  one  side  of 
the  account  and  interest  received,  or  charged  to  different 
farm  enterprises,  is  put  on  the  other  side.  Any  crop  or 
enterprise  that  uses  much  money  or  labor  should  pay  in- 
terest on  this  money  until  the  product  is  sold  or  ready  for 
feeding.  One  must  pay  for  labor,  and  feed  horses  while  he 
is  planting  wheat.  This  money  is  tied  up  for  a  number 
of  months.  The  wheat  crop  must  pay  interest  on  this 
amount.  If  the  accounts  are  handled,  as  in  the  set  illus- 
trated, interest  is  charged  to  the  farm  account  on  the  in- 
ventory value.     The  wheat  pays  rent  enough  to  cover  this 


490  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

uiid  other  land  costs.  In  the  wheat  account,  interest  is, 
therefore,  charged  on  all  other  costs,  except  the  cost  of  land 
and  building  rent.  If  an  account  does  not  have  a  very 
large  investment,  the  interest  charge  may  be  omitted,  as 
was  done  on  several  of  the  accounts. 

It  is  a  little  less  bother  and  may  be  as  well  to  charge 
interest  to  crops  on  all  costs.  This  makes  them  pay  in- 
terest on  the  use  of  buildings  and  land  or  really  makes  them 
pay  rent  in  the  middle  of  the  year.  Animals  that  give 
returns  daily,  as  cows  or  work  animals,  do  not  need  to  pay 
interest  on  costs,  but  should  pay  interest  on  the  average 
inventory.     They  pay  for  labor  and  feed  as  they  get  it. 

The  balance  of  the  interest  account  should  be  a  fair 
rate  of  interest  on  the  total  amount  of  money  that  the 
farmer  has  invested  in  the  business.  The  average  of 
the  present  worth  at  the  beginning  and  end  of  the  year 
usually  represents  the  average  investment. 

298.  General  expense.  —  Such  headings  as  general 
expense  must  be  used  very  cautiously  on  a  farm.  It  is 
nearly  always  possible  to  scatter  the  charges  to  different 
accounts  as  they  occur.  A  general  expense  account,  if 
kept,  should  be  kept  very  small. 

299.  Accounts  of  convenience.  —  It  is  very  often  de- 
sirable to  keep  a  separate  account  of  some  item  that  is 
later  to  be  charged  to  several  places.  If  fertilizer  is  bought 
for  several  crops,  it  may  be  convenient  to  keep  an  account 
with  fertilizers  and  charge  it  to  the  various  crops.  Or  a 
general  supply  account  may  be  carried  that  will  include 
any  such  items.  In  the  set  of  accounts  given,  an  account 
was  kept  with  improvements  to  see  what  the  new  barns  cost. 
When  done,  the  total  was  charged  to  the  farm.  If  the 
charges  had  been  taken  direct  to  the  farm  account,  it  would 
have  been  considerable  work  to  pick  out  the  barn  charges. 


COMPLETE  SET  OF  COST  ACCOUNTS  491 

300.  Personal  accounts.  —  All  personal  and  family  ex- 
penses are  charged  to  the  personal  account. 

The  value  of  the  labor  done  by  the  farmer,  and  the  value 
of  farm  work  done  by  members  of  the  family  and  not  paid 
for,  must  be  charged  to  the  labor  account  and  credited  to 
the  personal  account. 

Products  used  in  the  house  should  be  charged  to  the  per- 
sonal account.  Sometimes  it  is  just  as  well  to  include 
some  enterprises  in  this  account.  For  instance,  if  one  cow 
and  a  few  hens  are  kept  for  personal  use  only,  these  may 
be  included  with  the  personal  account.  The  garden  or  a 
lew  pigs  for  home  use  may  be  similarly  included.  The 
costs  of  these  things  are  then  charged  to  the  personal  ac- 
count, and  any  products  sold  are  credited  to  that  account. 

Or  c  ne  may  go  to  the  other  extreme  and  split  the  per- 
sonal account  into  food,  clothing,  furniture,  household 
expenses,  and  miscellaneous  expenses.  It  is  not  necessary 
to  open  a  separate  account  with  any  item  that  occurs  only 
a  few  times  in  a  year.  For  instance,  if  coal  is  bought  only 
a  few  times  in  a  year,  the  amount  and  cost  can  quickly  be 
picked  out  from  the  household  expenses.  It  is  not  neces- 
sary to  have  a  separate  account  with  fuel. 

301.  Order  of  closing  the  books.  —  Because  men, 
horses,  and  machinery  each  work  for  the  other,  it  would 
be  difficult  to  find  exactly  what  each  cost.  It  is,  there- 
fore, best  to  estimate  the  value  of  some  of  the  work  in 
closing  accounts.  Perhaps  the  best  way  is  to  estimate 
the  value  of  horse  and  equipment  labor  and  charge  the- 
labor  account  with  the  time  that  these  worked  for  the 
hired-men.  Also  charge  horses  with  equipment  at  the  es- 
timated rate  for  the  time  that  equipment  worked  for 
horses.  The  value  of  man  and  horse  and  equipment  labor 
can  then  be  determined  and  charged  to  other  accounts. 


492  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

In  closing  books  at  the  end  of  the  year,  the  following  is 
a  good  order  to  follow:  — 

Enter  any  accounts  payable  or  receivable  that  are  not  yet  re- 
corded. 

Charge  animals  and  credit  crops  with  any  hay,  grain,  straw,  or 
pasture  obtained  from  the  farm. 

Charge  the  personal  account  and  credit  crops  and  animals  with 
farm  products  used  by  the  family. 

Charge  labor  with  wood  and  farm  products  used  by  the  hired- 
men  and  credit  proper  accounts ;  also  charge  with  board 
furnished  in  the  family  and  credit  personal. 

Credit  personal  account  and  charge  labor  with  all  unpaid  labor 
done  by  the  farmer  and  his  family. 

Credit  animals  with  manure  produced  and  charge  to  proper 
accounts. 

Credit  farm  with  use  of  buildings  and  charge  personal  account 
for  use  of  house,  labor  account  for  houses  used  by  hired-men, 
and  animals  and  crops  for  use  of  barns. 

Charge  crops  and  animals  for  use  of  land  and  credit  farm.  • 

Charge  the  labor  account  and  credit  horses  and  equipment  with 
the  time  that  horses  and  equipment  worked  for  hired-men 
at  an  estimated  rate  per  hour. 

Find  the  cost  of  man  labor  and  distribute  according  to  hours  spent 
on  each  enterprise.     Charge  the  enterprise  and  credit  labor. 

Charge  horses  with  the  time  that  equipment  worked  for  horses 
at  the  estimated  value. 

Enter  the  horse  inventory.  Charge  horses  and  credit  interest  with 
interest  on  the  average  of  the  inventories. 

Distribute  the  cost  of  horse  labor  the  same  as  was  done  with  the 
labor  account.  In  finding  the  cost  of  horse  labor  deduct  the 
hours  that  horses  worked  for  labor  or  for  themselves. 

Enter  the  equipment  inventory,  charge  interest  as  in  the  horse 
account,  and  distribute  the  equipment  cost  in  proportion  to 
the  number  of  hours  that  horses  worked  on  each  enterprise. 

Distribute  or  transfer  any  accounts  of  convenience,  as  with  sup- 
plies, fertilizer,  etc. 

Enter  all  remaining  inventories. 

Charge  interest  to  remaining  accounts  where  worth  while. 

Balance  all  accounts. 


COMPLETE  SET  OF  COST  ACCOUNTS  493 

Make  a  list  of  losses  and  gains.  Find  the  net  loss  or  gain,  and 
compare  with  the  loss  or  gain  as  shown  by  the  two  inventories. 

Study  each  account  and  the  business  as  a  whole,  in  order  to  see 
how  to  improve  it. 

302.  Accounts  on  tenant  farms.  —  Ordinarily  the  ten- 
ant is  the  only  one  who  cares  to  keep  cost  accounts  on  a 
rented  farm.  A  tenant  charges  each  crop  or  kind  of  ani- 
mal with  what  they  cost  him  and  credits  them  with  what 
they  return  to  him. 

Occasionally  there  is  a  condition  where  the  cost  for  both 
parties  is  desired.  The  most  convenient  way  is  then  to 
have  four  columns  on  each  page  and  put  landlords'  costs 
in  one  set  of  columns  and  tenants'  in  the  other. 

References 

Laboratory  Exercises  in  Farm  Management,  Warren  and 
Livermore,  pp.  72-136. 

Farm  Bookkeeping,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers'  Bulletin  511. 

Farm  Accounts,  J.  A.  Vye. 

Cost  of  Producing  Farm  Products,  Minnesota,  Bulletin  97,  or 
U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bureau  of  Statistics,  Bulletin  48. 

Cost  of  Producing  Minnesota  Farm  Products,  Minnesota,  Bulle- 
tin 117,  or  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bureau  of  Statistics,  Bulletin  73. 

Cost  of  Producing  Minnesota  Dairy  Products,  Minnesota, 
Bulletin  124,  or  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bureau  of  Statistics, 
Bulletin  88. 


CHAPTER   18 
CHOICE    OF    A    REGION 

PROSPERITY    OF   THE    COMMUNITY 

There  are  areas  where  farmers  have  nearly  always  pros- 
pered. Some  years  have  been  better  than  others,  but  the 
farmers  have  rarely  failed  to  live  comfortably.  Such 
regions  as  the  Connecticut  valley,  the  limestone  soils  of 
Pennsylvania  and  Kentucky,  the  north  part  of  western 
New  York  (where  again  the  soils  are  well  supplied  with 
lime),  the  black  prairie  soils  of  the  corn-belt,  the  Red  River 
valley  of  the  North,  and  the  river  valleys  of  the  Eastern 
States  are  some  of  the  regions  where  success  has  been  fair 
in  bad  times,  and  good  in  good  times.  In  such  regions,  the 
farmers  live  in  comfortable  houses,  have  good  schools,  and 
send  their  sons  and  daughters  to  college.  The  valleys  of 
the  Rhine  and  of  the  Nile  have  always  been  the  last  to  feel 
adversity.  The  chances  of  success  are  greater  if  one  goes 
to  a  region  where  success  is  the  common  lot,  than  if  he  goes 
where  success  is  rare. 

On  the  other  extreme,  there  are  regions  where  many  an 
able  man  struggles  along  a  lifetime  against  impossible  odds. 
Men  are  always  pushing  up  into  the  hills  and  mountains 
and  into  the  deserts  and  on  to  the  barren  lands,  and  fight- 
ing with  forest  and  drought.  Sometimes  the  efforts  are 
successful.  In  many  places,  attempts  are  made  to  farm 
land  that  should  be  used  for  forests  or  pasture.  The 
abandoned  farms  in  some  places  in  the  Eastern  and  South- 

494 


CHOICE  OF  A  REGION  495 

ern  States  are  an  evidence  of  the  exceeding  difficulty  of 
making  a  living  on  farms  in  the  region.  Men  do  not 
abandon  their  homes  until  they  are  forced  to  do  so.  With 
a  change  in  conditions,  such  lands  may  again  be  of  use, 
but  a  young  man  should  give  the  problem  very  careful 
thought  before  he  locates  in  a  region  where  the  native  pop- 
ulation is  being  starved  out.  There  are  large  areas  in  the 
arid  sections  of  the  United  States  that  have  been  settled 
three  times,  and  three  times  abandoned.  Much  of  this 
land  will  never  be  of  any  value  except  for  grazing  purposes. 
Its  settlement  was  each  time  based  on  the  mistaken  idea 
that  the  climate  had  changed,  or  would  change  if  the  land 
were  plowed  In  some  cases,  a  type  of  farming  is  being 
followed  that  is  not  adapted  to  the  economic  conditions  of 
the  region.  Some  semi-arid  regions  support  a  prosperous 
community,  others  do  not. 

Many  times  the  feeble  efforts  of  the  native  population 
are  sneered  at  by  the  newcomer  or  passer-by.  The 
farmers  are  blamed  for  their  poor  condition.  It  is  well 
to  remember  that  the  white  population  of  America  is  all 
one  stock.  This  is  hard  to  believe  when  one  sees  the  slow 
and  shiftless  walk  in  some  sections.  But  to  be  convinced, 
one  needs  only  to  see  the  transformation  that  takes  place 
when  such  persons  move  to  regions  where  nature  rewards 
the  toiler.  Occasionallj^,  the  type  of  farming  may  need 
adjustment,  or  lack  of  transportation  facilities  may  be  the 
cause,  but  usually  when  one  finds  an  entire  community 
of  white  farmers  who  are  failing  to  live  comfortably,  there 
is  something  other  than  the  people  to  blame.  We  should 
not  too  lightly  condemn  the  experience  of  others. 

In  general,  the  most  prosperous  agriculture  does  not 
develop  unless  there  is  a  considerable  area  of  good  land  in 
a  body.     Much  of  the  prosperity    depends    on    having 


496  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

enough  of  the  product  to  attract  buyers,  to  get  railroad 
facilities,  and  to  develop  a  community  spirit  and  commu- 
nity knowledge. 

The  Bureau  of  Forestry  estimates  that  51  per  cent  of  the 
area  of  North  America  can  be  used  for  agricultural  pur- 
poses ;  26  per  cent  can  be  used  as  arid  ranges.  The  re- 
maining 23  per  cent  is  mostly  adapted  to  forestry  pur- 
poses.^ All  the  land  in  states  like  Illinois  is  included  in 
the  agricultural  land.  There  are  many  small  areas  on  farms 
that  are  adapted  only  to  woods  or  pasture. 

CLIMATE 

303.  Change  of  climate.  —  Perhaps  no  error  has  been 
the  cause  of  greater  losses  in  farming  in  arid  regions  than 
the  erroneous  idea  that  climate  changes.  Figure  110  shows 
the  rainfall  for  North  Platte,  Nebraska.  It  will  be  seen 
that  there  are  wet  years  and  dry  years.  There  is  no  rela- 
tionship between  the  rainfall  of  one  year  and  that  of  the 
year  following.  When  a  few  wet  years  come,  nearly  every 
one  decides  that  the  climate  has  changed  and  that  dry 
years  will  never  come  again.  Those  who  have  land  to 
sell  are  very  positive  about  it.  When  a  series  of  abnor- 
mally dry  years  come,  farmers  decide  that  it  will  never  rain 
again,  and  frequently  sell  their  farms  for  much  less  than 
they  are  worth.  Before  buying  and  before  selling,  one 
should  make  a  very  careful  study  of  the  rainfall.  After 
a  few  years  of  good  rainfall,  the  land  in  semi-arid  regions 
sells  for  much  more  than  it  is  worth. 

Seasons  vary  but  climate  does  not  change.  —  The  super- 
stition that  plowing,  cutting  off  the  forests,  or  any  other 
thing  in  man's  power  can  affect  climate  is  almost  universal 

1  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Forest  Service,  Circular  159. 


CHOICE  OF  A    REGION  497 

but  it  is  absolutely  baseless.  Forests  hold  back  the  soil 
water  so  that  the  streams  are  regulated,  but  forests  have 
no  effect  on  rainfall.  There  is  not  space  here  to  give  the 
proofs,  but  the  references  are  given  at  the  end  of  this 
chapter. 

304.  Compensating  cycles  in  weather.  —  Another 
error  that  affects  not  only  the  purchase  of  farms,  but  the 
planning  of  farm  work,  is  the  belief  held  by  nearly  every  one 
that  there  are  compensating  cycles  in  weather.  There  is  a 
slight  relationship  between  the  weather  to-day  and  what  is 
likely  to  come  in  the  next  few  days,  but  no  relationship 
for  next  month.  Persons  think  that  if  we  are  having  good 
weather,  we  must  pay  for  it  later ;  if  it  is  too  dry  now,  there 
will  be  an  unusual  amount  of  rain  later.  If  the  summer  is 
hot,  the  winter  will  be  cold.  If  this  is  a  dry  year,  next  year 
will  be  wet.  These  ideas  make  a  very  nice  theory,  but  there 
is  absolutely  nothing  in  them.  The  kind  of  weather  to  ex- 
pect is  the  average  of  the  region,  but  one  should  be  prepared 
for  the  variations  of  the  region.  A  wet  year  is  just  as 
likely  to  be  followed  by  another  wet  year  as  by  a  dry  one. 
It  is  most  likely  to  be  followed  by  a  normal  year.  Figure 
111  is  typical  in  this  respect.  Twenty-one  times  a  wet  or 
dry  year  has  been  followed  by  its  opposite,  and  23  times  it 
has  been  repeated.  For  a  period  of  58  years  in  Nebraska, 
wet  or  dry  years  have  been  followed  by  the  opposite  28 
times,  and  have  had  the  wet  or  dry  year  repeated  30  times. 
The  same  point  holds  for  all  climatic  factors  for  any  region. 
We  do  not  "  have  to  pay  "  for  our  good  weather  by  having 
bad  weather  later,  nor  do  we  have  any  reason  for  expecting 
a  reward  in  good  weather  because  we  have  been  having 
bad  weather.  We  should  always  e'xpect  the  normal 
weather  of  the  region  and  season,  and  be  prepared  to  meet 
the  usual  variations  either  way  from  the  normal. 
2k 


498 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


305.  Rainfall.  —  On  about  two-fifths  of  the  land  in  the 
United  States,  the  rainfall  is  the  limiting  factor  in  crop 
production.  Farming  is  dependent  on  irrigation  or  dry- 
farming  methods.  Very  much  of  this  area  can  never  be 
profitably  farmed.  Considerable  of  the  land  that  has 
lAiCHEb 

2a 


Z6 

10. 
5. 
0 


CO 
Fig.  110. 


o 

u^ 

o 

VO 

o 

^ 

oO 

OD 

0) 

o 

o 

o 

CO 

CO 

oO 

CO 

S 

^ 

o 

Rainfall  at  North  Platte,  Nebraska,  for  3G  years,  from  rec- 
ords of  the  United  States  Weather  Bureau. 


no  value  except  as  range  land  is  sold  to  settlers,  or  is  held 
as  a  speculation  in  the  hope  of  selling  it. 

In  nearly  all  parts  of  the  United  States,  the  loss  from 
periods  of  drought  is  very  serious,  even  though  the  total 
rainfall  of  the  year  may  be  large  enough  if  it  were  properly 
distributed.  One  should  make  a  careful  study  of  the  rain- 
fall before  he  invests  in  farm  land. 

The  rainfall  of  a  single  year,  or  of  a  few  years,  is  not 
sufficient  information.  Th(;  variations  in  rainfall  from 
year  to  year  are  very  great. 


CHOICE  OF  A    REGION 


499 


Figure  1 10  shows  the  rainfall  at  North  Platte,  Nebraska, 
for  36  years.  The  years  from  1887  to  1892  were  years  of 
fairly  good  crops.  Settlers  located  in  the  region  and  paid 
good  prices  for  land.  For  nine  years,  from  1893-1901,  the 
rainfall  was  below  normal  every  year,  and  crops  usually 
failed.  Many  of  the  settlers  lost  all  their  property. 
From  1902  to  1909  were  wet  years.     Crops  were  good  and 

INCHES 
^5- 


2>Q_ 


£Q      2 


Fig.   111. 


Rainfall  at  Dodge  City,  Kansas,  for  45  years,  from  records 
of  the  United  States  Weather  Bureau. 


land  rose  in  price  much  higher  than  conditions  warranted. 
In  1910  to  1912,  crops  were  either  partial  or  total  failures, 
so  that  farmers  who  did  not  have  considerable  money  were 
in  l)ad  straits.  Nearly  every  one  who  bought  land  in  this 
region  from  about  1905  to  1909  paid  much  more  than  it 


500  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

was  worth,  because  land  was  selling  on  the  basis  of  a  rain- 
fall above  normal.  Those  who  bought  land  in  the  late 
nineties  got  it  very  cheap,  because  it  was  selling  on  a  rain- 
fall below  normal. 

Figure  111  shows  the  rainfall  for  Dodge  City,  Kansas,  for 
45  years.  During  this  time,  there  were  9  years  when  the 
rainfall  exceeded  25  inches.  This  is  enough  for  good  crops 
when  properly  distributed.  In  9  more  years,  the  rainfall 
was  between  20  and  25  inches.  In  some  of  these  years, 
fairly  good  crops  were  secured.  In  27  years,  the  rainfall 
was  less  than  20  inches.  With  the  very  high  evaporation, 
this  amount  of  rain  is  usually  not  sufficient  to  produce  a 
good  crop.  One  who  farms  in  this  region  should  expect  an 
average  of  about  one  small  crop,  one  good  crop,  and  two 
crop  failures  every  four  years.  When  two  or  three  wet 
years  come  in  succession,  land  values  usually  rise  too  high. 
When  dry  years  come  in  succession,  they  are  likely  to  drop 
too  low.  Farming  under  such  uncertainties  is  a  very  try- 
ing business.  One  never  knows  when  he  may  be  called 
upon  to  live  and  pay  his  expenses  for  several  years  with  no 
crops. 

The  distribution  of  the  rainfall  is  almost  as  important 
as  the  amount  of  it.  Figures  112,  113,  and  114  show  three 
general  types  of  rainfall :  the  summer  rainfall  of  the  Great 
Plains,  the  winter  and  spring  rainfall  of  the  inter  mountain 
district,  and  the  winter  rainfall  of  the  Pacific  Coast. 

The  frequency  of  torrential  rains,  the  surface  run-off, 
and  the  loss  of  water  through  evaporation  should  also 
be  considered. 

306.  Evaporation  is  almost  as  important  as  rainfall. 
The  evaporation  from  a  free  water  surface  at  Williston, 
North  Dakota,  is  30  inches  during  the  six  months  of  April 
to  September,  while  at  Garden  City,  Kansas,  it  is  60 


CHOICE  OF  A    REGION 


501 


INCHES 


J    F  r\  ft  n.  J.  J.   A.  a  o.  n.  d. 

Fig.  112.  —  Average  diatribution  of  rainfall  by  months,    North  Platte, 

Nebraska. 


INCHES 


lUllmJll 

J.  F    r\  K  r\.  5.   J.    ^.  s.  o.  N.   D. 


Fig.  113.  —  Average  distribution  of  rainfall  by  months,  Ogden,  Utah. 


J.     r    n.     ft.    A.    3.     J      h.    5    O.    N.    D. 
Fig.  1 14.  —  Average   distribution  of   rainfall    by  months,    Sacramento, 

California. 


602 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


inches.^  Holding  moisture  in  the  soil  in  this  part  of 
Kansas  is  a  very  different  problem  from  conserving  mois- 
ture in  Dakota.  Figure  115  shows  the  lines  of  equal  rainfall 
and  lines  of  equivalent  rainfall  for  part  of  the  Great 


Fig.  115.  —  Lines  of  equal  rainfall  in  black.  Dotted  lines  pass  through 
places  having  a  rainfall  equivalent  to  15  and  20  inches,  respectively, 
on  the  Canadian  boundary. 

Plains  region.     Fifteen  inches  of  rainfall  is  more  effective 
in  North  Dakota  than  20  inches  in  Texas. 

307.    Winds.  —  The  winds  also  affect  profits.     In  semi- 

lU.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  Bulletin  188,  p.  18. 


CHOICE  OF  A    REGION  503 

arid  regions,  the  frequency  of  hot  winds  is  of  very  great 
importance.  Crops  are  frequently  damaged  by  hot  winds, 
when  the  moisture  present  might  carry  them  along  in 
normal  weather. 

308.  Hail.  —  The  frequency  of  damage  by  hail  is  also 
to  be  considered.  Hail  is  much  more  frequent  in  some 
regions  than  in  others.  It  is  most  frequent  in  some  parts 
of  the  semi-arid  regions. 

309.  Length  of  season.  —  The  number  of  days  between 
frosts  and  the  frequency  of  injury  from  late  spring  or  early 
fall  frosts  are  very  important  climatic  features.  The 
danger  of  frost  is  often  the  controlling  factor  in  fruit 
growing.  The  crops  that  can  be  grown  depend  not  only 
on  the  length  of  season,  but  on  the  amount  of  sunshine  and 
heat.  A  day  in  the  corn-belt  is  a  very  different  day  from 
one  in  New  England.  Corn  that  matures  in  100  days  in 
Illinois  usually  requires  over  120  days  in  New  York. 

Information  as  to  the  climate  of  different  states  may  be 
obtained  by  writing  to  the  United  States  Weather  Bureau 
at  Washington,  or  by  writing  to  the  State  Experiment 
Station.  A  few  states  have  published  valuable  bulletins 
on  climate.  Some  of  these  are  listed  at  the  end  of  this 
chapter. 

FERTILITY    OF    THE    SOIL 

310.  Importance  of  fertility.  —  The  natural  fertiUty  of 
the  land  is  usually  the  most  important  single  point  to 
consider  in  l)uying  a  farm.  The  man  who  buys  a  good  soil 
at  a  reasonable  price  can  usually  add  other  things.  But 
if  the  soil  is  not  naturally  good,  the  other  good  points  can 
never  make  it  so.  In  fact,  man  rarely  makes  a  really  rich 
soil  out  of  one  tiiat  was  naturally  jKJor.  Nature  had  un- 
told ages  to  grow  crops  and  allow  them  to  fall  back  and 


504  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

decay  to  grow  more  crops.  If  with  these  ages  of  green- 
manuring  a  rich  soil  was  not  produced,  it  will  never  be 
made  permanently  rich.  We  may  add  manure  and  fer- 
tilizers and  grow  good  crops,  but  if  the  soil  is  not  naturally 
rich,  it  will  fail  as  soon  as  we  stop  feeding  it. 

If  the  crops  grown  are  valuable  enough,  it  may  pay  to 
farm  it  in  this  way.  Most  of  the  vegetables  for  the 
eastern  cities  are  grown  on  the  sandy  soils  of  the  Atlantic 
Coast.  These  soils  are  often  little  more  than  a  place  on 
which  to  grow  crops.  But  the  crops  are  high-priced  ones ; 
the  soils  are  warm  and  grow  crops  quickly.  They  are 
easily  tilled.  With  truck  crops,  it  pays  better  to  add 
enormous  quantities  of  manure  and  fertilizer  on  such 
soils  than  to  use  heavy  soils  that  are  naturally  rich,  but 
that  require  much  more  work  and  that  do  not  grow  vege- 
tables of  so  good  quality.  The  manure  and  fertilizer 
very  frequently  cost  $20  to  $30  per  acre  per  year. 

One  very  successful  farmer  in  New  Jersey  uses  a  ton  of 
fertilizer  per  acre  and  twenty  tons  of  manure  in  growing 
cantaloupes.  The  fertilizer  costs  $30  and  the  manure 
$2.50  per  ton,  besides  the  hauling.  Each  year  the  farmer 
spends  twice  as  much  for  fertilizer  and  manure  as  the  land 
is  worth. 

Such  soils  cannot  be  used  to  a  profit  for  growing  grain, 
hay,  or  live-stock.  If  one  is  to  raise  general  farm  crops, 
it  pays  very  rarely  to  select  a  farm  with  a  poor  soil.  If 
too  poor,  such  a  farm  is  not  worth  taking  as  a  gift,  if 
one  is  required  to  live  on  it. 

We  advocate  killing  the  cow  that  does  not  pay  for  her 
feed.  Why  should  we  farm  a  soil  where  the  crop  does  not 
pay  the  cost  of  production?  Some  land  is  being  farmed 
that  cannot  possibly  be  made  to  pay  with  present  prices 
of  products.  Such  land  should  be  kept  in  woods  or  pasture 
until  some  future  time  when  it  may  pay  for  farming. 


CHOICE  OF  A  REGION  50r> 

However,  the  present  condition  of  the  soil  may  be  mis- 
leading. A  naturally  good  soil  may  be  a  little  out  of 
condition  and  may  sometimes  be  easily  brought  up  at 
small  expense.  On  the  other  hand,  land  that  is  not 
naturally  good  is  sometimes  growing  big  crops,  because 
of  the  treatment  given. 

Because  men  judge  too  much  by  superficial  appearances, 
it  often  happens  that  land  that  is  good  but  out  of  condition 
sells  for  less  than  it  is  worth,  while  poorer  land  that  has 
been  better  cared  for  sells  for  more  than  it  is  worth.  In 
order  to  judge  land,  it  is  necessary  to  consider  both  the 
present  appearances  and  the  underlying  causes. 

311.  Use  of  soil  maps.  —  If  a  soil  map  of  the  region, 
prepared  by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture 
or  by  a  State  College,  is  available,  it  will  give  reliable  in- 
formation as  to  the  soil  type  and  its  value.  The  particular 
farm  in  question  may  be  better  or  poorer  than  the  soil 
type  would  indicate,  but  the  general  character  and  adap- 
tation of  the  soil  is  shown.  These  government  reports 
must  be  read  with  care.  They  are  likely  to  give  the  more 
cheerful  prospects  for  the  region,  but  if  carefully  read, 
the  facts  are  usually  reliable. 

312.  Value  of  chemical  analysis.  —  If  a  chemical 
analysis  has  been  made  of  the  soil  type,  it  should  be  con- 
sidered. Such  an  analysis  is  of  great  value  in  showing 
fundamental  deficiencies. 

The  soil  may  have  a  very  large  amount  of  some  plant- 
food  and  still  give  better  crops  when  more  of  this  food  is 
added  in  a  fertilizer.  For  this  reason,  some  persons  have 
lost  faith  in  chemical  analysis  of  soils.  But  if  a  soil  is 
very  deficient  in  any  element  of  plant-food,  the  deficiency 
should  be  known.  Chemical  analysis  gives  this  informa- 
tion. 


506 


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CHOICE  OF  A    REGION  509 

Most  of  the  soils  in  America  that  are  rich  in  lime  and 
phosphorus  are  productive.  Many  soils,  particularly 
in  the  humid  regions,  lack  both  of  these.  The  highly 
prosperous  farming  regions  in  the  United  States  are  all 
on  soils  that  are  rich  in  lime  and  phosphorus,  or  that  have 
not  yet  begun  to  feel  a  serious  shortage  of  these  elements- 
If  the  deficiency  is  not  too  serious,  the  land  may  be  prof- 
ita})ly  farmed.  But  if  the  deficiency  is  very  serious,  the 
cost  of  fertilizer  may  be  as  much  as  the  rent  of  rich  land. 
Furthermore,  if  the  deficiency  is  very  serious  in  the  subsoil, 
it  cannot  be  readily  corrected  for  deep-rooted  plants. 
One  may  lime  the  surface,  but  cannot  get  lime  to  the 
subsoil  except  by  the  process  of  letting  it  leach  down. 
The  writer  has  never  seen  any  permanently  profitable 
alfalfa  on  a  soil  that  was  seriously  short  of  lime  or  phos- 
phorus in  the  subsoil.  Usually  on  such  a  soil,  a  heavy 
application  of  lime  will  start  the  crop,  but  it  will  not  do 
well  when  its  roots  get  into  the  subsoil.  Of  course  it 
can  be  made  to  grow,  but  making  it  pay  is  a  different 
matter. 

Table  79  gives  the  amount  of  phosphorus,  potassium, 
and  calcium  in  two  million  pounds  of  soil  for  some  typical 
American  soils,  as  reported  by  the  Bureau  of  Soils  of  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.  The  writer 
has  arranged  these  in  four  classes  according  to  the 
crop  yields  reported. 

The  first  two  soils  in  the  table  are  practically  worthless, 
as  is  indicated  by  the  low  yields  and  abandoned  land. 
Of  course,  one  can  raise  ''  bumper  crops  "  on  these  soils 
if  he  uses  enough  fertilizer,  but  this  is  no  credit  to  the  soils. 
They  merely  furnish  the  place  for  crops  to  grow.  They 
do  not  deserve  the  name  of  soil.  The  farmers  have  learned 
that  it  does  not  pay  to  farm  such  land.     The  few  who 


610  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

persist  in  staying  because  houses  are  there,  usually  live 
as  poorly  as  do  persons  in  the  slums  of  cities.  The  popular 
assumption  seems  to  be  that  these  soils  were  once  rich. 
They  never  were  rich.  The  farmers  on  them  never  were 
very  prosperous,  except  when  they  prospered  by  having  a 
very  large  acreage  run  by  slaves.  The  returns  per  worker 
never  were  good.  One  needs  but  to  travel  over  these 
scrub  pine  lands,  and  then  go  to  some  of  the  limestone 
regions  of  Pennsylvania  and  Maryland,  to  realize  the 
importance  of  locating  on  a  fertile  soil. 

One  of  the  best  of  the  soils  that  the  writer  has  classed 
as  of  low  productivity  is  the  Orangeburg  fine  sandy  loam. 
It  is  reported  to  yield  about  20  bushels  of  corn.  It  is  one 
of  the  most  important  cotton  soils  of  the  South,  not  because 
it  is  so  rich,  but  because  there  is  so  much  of  it.  It  requires 
heavy  fertilizing  to  secure  good  yields. 

The  Marion  silt  loam  of  southern  Illinois  is  a  typical 
redtop  soil.  The  Bureau  of  Soils  reports  say  that  corn 
averages  only  about  15  bushels,  but  that  the  farmers  l:nd 
this  to  pay  as  well  as  any  crop.  How  rich  a  farmer  will 
get  growing  this  crop  of  corn  is  realized  when  we  know 
that  it  usually  takes  25  to  50  man  hours  and  50  horse  hours 
to  grow  an  acre  of  corn.  Of  course,  good  crops  can  be 
grown  if  lime  and  phosphorus  are  used  and  something  is 
plowed  under  for  humus.  If  one  has  to  live  on  such  a 
soil,  he  should  by  all  means  use  these.  But  when  one  is 
choosing  a  farm,  it  is  not  often  wise  to  select  a  soil  where 
the  fertilizer  and  labor  of  enrichment  cost  so  much. 

The  Volusia  silt  loam  at  Wooster,  Ohio,  is  much  better 
than  most  of  this  soil  type.  At  the  Ohio  Experiment 
Station,  in  the  region  where  the  sample  was  taken,  the 
ten -year  average  yields  without  fertilizer  were  31  bushels 
of  corn,  30  of  outs,  9  of  wheat,  and  |  of  a  ton  of  hay.     Much 


CHOICE  OF  A    REGION  511 

of  the  soil  of  this  type  on  the  hills  of  New  York  and 
Pennsylvania  will  not  grow  wheat  or  clover  without  much 
expense  for  lime  and  fertilizer.  It  has  reached  the  red- 
top  stage.  It  never  was  a  good  soil  and  never  will  be. 
It  grows  fairly  good  crops  of  oats,  buckwheat,  and  pota- 
toes. Of  course,  big  yields  have  been  grown  on  it  and  can 
l)e  grown,  but  about  the  only  really  prosperous  period  in 
farming  it  was  when  the  farmers  got  most  of  their  money 
from  cutting  off  the  crop  of  white  pine  and  chestnut.  To- 
day many  of  the  farmers  on  the  poorer  phases  of  this  soil 
are  not  well  fed.  I3y  having  very  large  areas,  it  is  possible 
to  make  a  good  living.  Much  of  the  land  is  then  kept 
in  woods  and  large  pastures.     Only  the  best  is  tilled. 

The  Hagerstown  loam  is,  in  general,  a  rich  limestone 
soil.  This  particular  region  does  not  seem  to  be  typical 
of  this  soil,  either  in  analysis  or  yields.  This  is  the  name 
given  to  the  rich  limestone  soils  that  extend  from  south- 
eastern Pennsylvania  through  Maryland  and  Virginia, 
eastern  Tennessee,  and  northern  Alabama  and  in  the  blue- 
grass  region  of  Kentucky.  This  soil  should  be  in  the  class 
of  the  naturally  productive  soils,  but  the  sample  and  crops 
in  the  table  are  not  typical. 

Most  of  the  farming  regions  that  have  the  soil  types 
classed  as  highly  productive  are  prosperous  farming  regions. 
The  Marshall  silt  loam  is  the  predominating  soil  of  the  corn- 
belt.  The  Bureau  of  Soils  estimates  that  there  are  sixty 
million  acres  of  this  soil. 

An  examination  of  the  analyses  in  the  table  shows  that 
the  soils  of  low  productivity  contain  much  less  plant-food 
than  the  soils  of  high  productivity.  The  differences 
are  particularly  striking  in  the  amount  of  phosphorus 
and  lime  present. 

313.    Plants  as  indicators  of  fertility.  —  The  kind  and 


512  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

character  of  the  trees,  weeds,  and  crops  help  in  telling  the 
fertility  of  the  soil. 

When  considering  plants,  the  entire  list  observed  should 
be  considered  rather  than  the  presence  or  absence  of  some 
one  plant.  It  is  often  said  that  sheep  sorrel  indicates 
an  acid  soil,  but  sorrel  will  grow  around  a  pile  of  limestone. 
It  is  a  hardy  plant  and  will  grow  under  adverse  conditions. 
The  presence  of  sorrel  and  other  plants  of  low  lime  re- 
quirement, and  the  absence  of  clover,  alfalfa,  and  other 
lime-requiring  plants,  rather  than  the  presence  or  absence 
of  some  one  plant,  is  the  point  to  consider. 

It  is  sometimes  said  that  redtop  indicates  a  wet  soil, 
yet  it  is  the  chief  hay  plant  on  some  dry  hillsides.  The 
fact  is  that  redtop  is  a  hardy  plant  and  will  live  under 
many  adverse  conditions,  one  of  which  is  too  much  water ; 
another  is  dry  soil ;  another  is  lack  of  lime  or  an  acid  soil. 

The  following  plants,  in  general,  indicate  good  soils. 
Any  one  of  them  may  be  found  on  poor  soils,  but  the  general 
presence  of  these  plants  indicates  good  soils  :  — 

Alfalfa,  clover,  Kentucky  blue-grass,  corn,  wheat,  wal- 
nut, ash,  basswood,  crab  apple,  quack  grass,  Canada 
thistle. 

The  general  presence  of  the  following  plants  and  absence 
of  the  above  list  suggests  poorer  soils  or  poorly  managed 
soils :  — 

Redtop,  Canada  blue-grass,  rye,  buckwheat,  oats, 
potatoes,  chestnut,  beech,  pine,  hemlock,  spruce,  daisy, 
wild  carrot,  five  finger,  paint  brush,  sorrel,  golden  rod. 

Any  one  of  the  last  list  will  grow  on  a  good  soil,  but  most 
of  them  can  be  grown  on  soils  that  will  not  grow  the  plants 
of  the  first  list.  Golden  rod  grows  luxuriantly  on  the  richest 
soils,  but  grows  on  the  poorest  soils.  If  there  is  a  general 
prevalence  of  the  crops  of  the  last  list,  and  absence  of 


CHOICE  OF  A    REGION  513 

those  in  the  first  list,  the  soil  is  fairly  certain  to  be  a  poor 
one. 

314.  Use  of  Census  figures.  —  By  studying  the 
Census  figures  of  kinds  of  crops  grown,  yields,  and  other 
Census  figures,  one  may  obtain  a  good  idea  of  the  condi- 
tion of  agriculture  in  any  of  the  older  states.  Studies 
such  as  those  in  Table  54  will  also  help. 

315.  Comparative  advantages  of  new  and  old  regions. 
—  There  is  considerable  rich  land  in  the  Eastern  States 
that  can  be  bought  at  $75  to  $100  per  acre.  Very  fre- 
quently, the  improvements  on  a  150-acre  farm  are  worth 
over  half  the  price  of  the  land.  Which  will  pay  better, 
to  buy  such  land  or  go  to  Canada  and  buy  open  land  at 
a  few  dollars  per  acre?  In  making  the  comparison,  the 
improved  land  should  be  counted  at  what  it  really  costs 
above  the  value  of  improvements.  Not  only  are  the 
farms  improved,  but  the  roads  and  school  houses  are  built. 
These  community  improvements  often  represent  a  value 
of  $10  per  acre.  It  is  evident  that  if  one  has  the  necessary 
capital,  it  is  likely  to  pay  better  to  buy  the  improved 
land. 

The  new  countries  have  always  attracted  those  with 
little  money.  One  may  locate  on  new  land  and  go  with- 
out many  of  the  farm  and  community  improvements.  It 
is  also  easier  to  economize  in  a  new  country.  One  can  go 
to  church  on  a  spring  seat  in  a  lumber  wagon  very  com- 
fortably, if  all  the  neighbors  come  in  the  same  way.  It 
is  very  hard  to  economize  so  closely  in  an  old  country 
where  most  of  the  neighbors  are  well-to-do. 

316.  Land  prices  vary  from  time  to  time  and  are  often 
entirely  out  of  proportion  to  their  values.  Very  fre- 
quently, hind  in  one  county  will  rise  in  ])ricc  several 
years   before   any   change   takes   place   in   an   adjoining 

2l 


514  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

county  that  is  equally  good.  The  great  rise  in  land  values 
in  the  Central  West  began  in  Illinois  and  Iowa  and  spread 
gradually.  Farms  with  which  the  writer  is  familiar  in 
Illinois  reached  $150,  when  certain  farms  in  Nebraska 
were  worth  $40.  At  the  present  time,  the  Nebraska  land 
has  reached  $125,  and  these  particular  Illinois  farms  are 
worth  about  $250. 

Land  rose  to  a  very  high  price  in  the  Middle  West 
before  eastern  and  southern  farms  began  to  rise  in  price. 
Now  farms  in  both  of  these  regions  are  rising  fairly  rapidly, 
and  the  prices  in  the  Middle  West  are  about  stationary. 
The  waves  of  rising  and  falling  values  pass  from  region 
to  region.  One  who  knows  the  agricultural  values  of  the 
different  regions  will  consider  the  relation  of  prices  to 
value  before  locating. 

Figure  116  shows  the  relative  changes  in  land  values 
in  Iowa,  Illinois,  and  New  York.  The  values  in  Iowa 
and  Illinois  have  advanced  in  much  the  same  way.  In 
1890,  the  Iowa  land  offered  a  better  investment  than  the 
Illinois  land.  If  $1000  had  been  invested  in  average 
land  in  each  state,  the  value  in  1910  would  have  been 
$3416  in  Iowa  and  $2016  in  Illinois.  But  if  $1000  had 
been  invested  in  New  York  land  in  1890,  it  would  have 
been  worth  only  $1220  in  1910. 

There  is  no  question  but  that  the  price  of  New  York 
land  rose  too  high  at  the  time  of  the  Civil  War.  For  a 
generation,  this  land  dropped  in  value  while  the  western 
land  rose  in  price.  After  such  a  period  of  depression,  it 
takes  some  time  for  confidence  to  be  restored  so  that 
land  again  rises  in  price.  There  is  little  doubt  but  that 
New  York  land  was  relatively  too  high  in  1870,  land  there 
seems  to  be  little  doubt  but  that  it  was  relatively  too  low 
in  1910.     The  real  land  values  in  these  different  states 


CHOICE   OF  A    REGION 


515 


have  a  fairly  constant  relationship,  but  the  prices  may 
jump  up  in  one  region  and  then  in  another.  Land  values 
do  not  rise  uniformly. 

Sometimes  values  become  inflated.  When  land  rises 
very  rapidly,  it  is  fairly  certain  to  rise  too  high.  Buyers 
come  to  expect  their  profit  from  the  increase  in  value 

LAND 
VALUE 

I  HO 
100 
QO 
80 
70 
60 
60 
40 
50 
SO 
10 
0 


NEW  YORK 

ILLINOIS 
IOWA 


1 

t      . 

/       / 

// 

■■-4-^ 

// 
/  -' 

y 

_^- 

-^<^.,' 

'^ 

^^^^ 

^--^ 

..-- 

^-^ 

1^ ' 

1850      1860      18T0      1660      1890     1900      1910 

Fig.   116.  —  Comparative  huul  values  in  Iowa,  Illinois,  and  Now  York. 

rather  than  the  income,  but  this  cannot  continue  indefi- 
nitely. Tlien>  are  some  regions  where  land  is  paying 
only  3  per  cent  interest,  when  safe  mortgages  pay  5 
per  cent.  The  owners  hope  for  a  rise  in  value  to  cover 
the  remaining  interest.  So  long  as  there  is  another  man 
ready  to  buy  at  the  higher  price,  this  works  out  all  right, 
but  there  comes  a  last  buyer.  By  this  process,  it  some- 
times happens  that  land  rises  to  much  more  than  its  real 
value  before  the  drop  comes. 


516  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

References 

Dry  Farming  in  Relation  to  Rainfall  and  Evaporation,  U.  S. 

Dept.  Agr.,  Bureau  Plant  Industry,  Bulletin  188. 
The  Weather  Bureau  and  the  Home  Seeker,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr., 

Yearbook,  1904,  pp.  353-358. 
The  So-called  Change  of  Climate  in  the  Semi-arid  West,  U.  S, 

Dept.  Agr.,  Yearbook,  1908,  pp.  289-300. 
Forty  Years  of  Southern  New  Mexico  Climate,  New  Mexico, 

Bulletin  59. 
The  Length  of  the  Growing  Season,  North  Dakota,  Bulletin  52. 
Climate  of  Colorado,  Colorado,  Bulletins  127  and  182. 
Climate  of  Ohio,  Ohio,  Bulletin  235. 
The   Climate   of  Wisconsin  and   Its   Relation   to   Agriculture, 

Wisconsin,  Bulletin  223. 
Frosts  in  New  York,  New  York,  Cornell  Bulletin  316. 
An  Agricultural  Survey  of  Nebraska,  Nebraska  State  Board  of 

Agriculture,  Report,  1909,  pp.  267-351. 
Natural  Vegetation  as  an  Indicator  of  the  Capabilities  of  Land 

for  Crop  Production  in  the  Great  Plains  Area.     U.  S.  Dept. 

Agr.,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  Bulletin  201. 
Relation  of  P*recipitation  to  Yield  of  Corn,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr., 

Yearbook,  1903,  pp.  215-224. 
A  Study  of    the  Soils  of  the  United  States,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr., 

Bureau  Soils,  Bulletin  85. 
Fi(4d  Operations  of  the  Bureau  of  Soils,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. 
Soil  Maps  prepared  by  the  Illinois  Experiment  Station. 
Important  American  Soils,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Yearbook,  1911, 

pp.  223-236. 
The  Use  of  Soil  Surveys,  U.  S.   Dept.  Agr.,  Yearbook,  1906, 

pp.  181-188. 
The   Future   Use  of  Land  in  the  United  States,  U.  S.   Dept. 

Agr.,  Forest  Service,  Circular  159. 
Land  Values  and  Land  Prices  in  the  East  and  in  the  West,  New 

York  State  Dept.  Agr.,  Circular  18. 
Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  I,  pp.  1-132,  140-142, 

148-151,  and  151-154. 
How  to  (^hoose  a  Farm,  T.  F.  Hunt,  pp.  128-396. 
Soil  Fertility  and  Permanent  Agriculture,  C.  G.  Hopkins,  pp. 

136-152. 


CHAPTER   19 

CHOOSING    AND    BUYING    A   FARM 

The  choice  of  a  region  and  the  choice  of  a  farm  are 
much  the  same  problem,  but  there  are  many  points  that 
have  more  to  do  with  the  individual  farm  and  community 
than  with  the  section  of  the  country. 

317.  Importance  of  securing  a  good  farm.  —  The 
most  important  decision  that  the  farmer  is  called  upon 
to  make  is  the  choice  of  a  farm.  In  regions  where  the 
soil  is  most  nearly  uniform,  the  problem  is  not  so  serious, 
but  even  then  there  are  great  differences  in  farms.  In 
regions  of  variable  soils,  it  very  often  happens  that  a 
farm  on  which  it  is  difficult  to  make  a  living  joins  a  good 
farm.  When  strangers  are  buying  land,  these  differences 
are  very  frequently  used  to  deceive  purchasers.  North- 
ern farmers  going  South  and  western  farmers  moving 
East  are  often  misled  into  buying  poor  farms  that  sound 
cheap  rather  than  buying  good  land.  Sometimes  land 
that  has  very  little  agricultural  value  has  a  trading  value, 
just  as  an  old  horse  that  is  worthless  for  work  has  a  trad- 
ing value. 

318.  Size  of  farm.  —  Chapters  7  and  8  have  discussed 
the  question  of  size  of  farm.  If  a  farm  is  too  large  or  too 
small,  the  chances  of  buying  or  selling  to  secure  the 
proper  area  should  be  considered.  If  one  wishes  to  com- 
bine two  or  more  farms,  and  the  fact  is  known,  it  is  not 
always  easy  to  buy  at  reasonable  prices. 

319.  Area  in  crops.  —  Much  more  important  than  the 

517 


518  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

total  area  is  the  area  of  land  that  is  ready  for  raising 
crops  or  that  can  easily  be  made  ready  for  crops.  Rough 
pasture  land  and  brush  land  may  be  of  little  value. 
Standing  timber  may  be  very  valuable,  but  stump  land 
and  brush  land  are  of  low  value.  The  area  in  crops  and 
7iatural  yielding  power  of  the  soil  are  the  most  important 
factors  in  determining  profits.  If  one  is  merelj^  looking 
for  a  place  to  rais<^  animals  on  purchased  fecxl,  he  liad 
better  locate  in  a  city,  where  animal  products  sell  for 
higher  prices.  If  his  area  in  crops  is  too  small,  or  the 
yield  per  acre  too  low,  he  lacks  the  basis  for  profitable 
farming.  It  should  be  remembered  that  on  a  well-managed, 
diversified  farm,  raising  such  general  farm  crops  as  cotton, 
corn,  small  grain,  potatoes  and  hay,  there  should  ordi- 
narily be  20  to  30  acres  of  crops  per  horse.  A  five-horse 
farm  should  have  100  to  150  acres  of  crops. 

Many  farms  that  appear  cheap  are  really  high-priced 
for  the  tillable  land.  A  100-acre  farm  that  is  only  half 
tillable  and  that  sells  for  $5000  may  really  cost  $90  per 
acre  for  the  tillable  land. 

320.  The  farm  layout.  —  The  shape  and  size  of  the 
fields  and  the  nearness  of  the  fields  to  the  farmstead  are 
important  points.  If  the  arrangement  is  not  a  good  one, 
the  cost  of  a  rearrangement  and  the  probable  loss  of  time 
and  profits  while  making  the  changes  must  be  considered. 
A  full  discussion  of  this  subject  is  given  in  Chapter  12. 

321.  The  lay  of  the  land.  —  The  topography  or  lay 
of  the  land  is  l)ecoming  increasingly  important  as  the 
use  of  machinery  increases.  A  steep  side  hill  could  be 
farmed  at  very  little  disadvantage  in  the  days  of  the 
scythe,  grain  cradle,  and  potato  hook,  but  may  not  allow 
the  use  of  the  self-binder,  hay  loader,  manure  spreader 
and  potato  digger.     Every  new  machine  that  is  invented 


520  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

makes  the  struggle  more  difficult  for  the  man  who 
cannot  use  the  machine.  If  he  must  compete  with  it 
by  hand  labor,  he  must  lower  his  standard  of  living  or 
change  his  type  of  farming. 

Some  men  are  wasting  their  lives  on  land  that  ought 
to  be  kept  in  permanent  pasture  or  woods,  merely  because 
the  land  is  cleared  and  there  is  a  house  on  it. 

Sometimes  such  land  can  be  combined  with  better 
farming  land  so  as  to  make  a  good  farm.  The  rougher 
area  can  then  be  used  for  pasture  and  the  better  parts 
for  tillage.     (See  Figure  91.) 

Topography  also  affects  erosion.  This  problem  is  of 
greatest  importance  in  regions  of  heavy  rainfall,  and  is 
particularly  serious  in  regions  with  a  long  season.  Ero- 
sion is  one  of  the  most  serious  problems  in  the  South. 
If  contour  farming  has  to  be  resorted  to,  the  irregular 
fields  still  further  increase  the  expense. 

If  the  land  washes  too  much,  fall  plowing  cannot  be 
done.  This  reduces  the  crop  area  that  a  man  can  raise, 
and  hence  reduces  the  income. 

Because  of  erosion  and  leaching,  side  hill  soils  are 
likely  to  be  exhausted  very  soon.  Valleys  are  kept  rich 
at  the  expense  of  the  hills.  Many  of  the  wars  of  Europe 
have  been  fought  for  possession  of  parts  of  the  rich  valley 
of  the  Rhine.  Nations  do  not  often  fight  for  the  owner- 
ship of  infertile  land. 

Sometimes  the  topography  affects  production  in  other 
ways.  In  one  township  in  Wayne  County,  New  York, 
the  four-year  average  yield  of  apples  was  43  bushels 
more  per  acre  on  easterly  than  on  westerly  slopes.^  The 
difference  seems  to  be  entirely  due  to  the  prevalence  oi 
strong  west  winds  that  blow  off  the  apples. 

» New  York,  Cornell  BuUetin  226,  p.  326. 


crroosiNG  and  buying  a  farm  521 

An  elevation  above  the  surrounding  country  is  some- 
times desirable  for  avoidance  of  frost.  In  the  peach 
sections  of  northern  New  Jersey,  the  valleys  are  best 
for  grain  crops,  but  are  not  good  for  peaches,  because 
the  late  spring  frosts  are  so  likely  to  kill  the  buds.  The 
trees  in  the  valleys  bloom  a  little  earlier.  Frosts  some- 
times occur  in  the  valleys  when  the  higher  land  is  exempt. 
Fungous  diseases  are  also  worse  in  the  valleys  than  on  the 
higher  land  that  has  good  air  drainage. 

In  regions  where  there  are  great  differences  in  elevation, 
the  climate  of  the  hill  lands  is  very  different  from  that  of 
the  low  lands.  The  soils  are  usually  very  different. 
Persons  who  have  grown  up  in  a  plains  region  like  the 
corn-belt  are  easily  misled  when  they  go  to  a  hilly  coun- 
try. It  is  hard  to  understand  that  in  the  same  neighbor- 
hood, differences  in  elevation  may  make  a  difference  of 
two  weeks  in  the  time  of  planting  crops.  There  are  many 
places  in  the  Northeastern  States  where  the  level  valley 
land  sells  for  $100  per  acre  while  level  land  on  the  hill 
tops  a  few  miles  away  sells  for  $10. 

If  there  is  any  danger  from  drought,  side  hills  are  much 
more  affected  than  level  land.  Not  only  does  much  of 
the  water  run  off,  but  the  evaporation  is  usually  more, 
particularly  from  the  south  and  west  slopes.  In  a  region 
of  fairly  good  rainfall,  the  hillsides  are  often  really  semi- 
arid. 

322.  Fertility  of  the  soil.  —  On  pages  503  to  513,  there 
is  a  discussion  of  this  very  important  point.  The  natural 
fertility  of  the  land  is  more  important  than  the  present 
condition.  By  studying  the  crops  and  weeds  on  the  farm, 
as  discussed  on  pages  511  to  513,  one  may  gain  a  fair 
idea  of  its  fertility.  The  crops  on  adjoining  farms  should 
also  be  examined.     A  chemical  analysis  of  the  soil  of  a 


522  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

particular  farm  is  not  often  available,  but  pul)lished  r(>- 
ports  may  give  an  idea  of  the  soil  in  general.  Many 
times  a  good  farm  looks  bad  because  of  neglect.  It  is 
often  possible  to  secure  such  a  farm  at  a  bargain.  One 
must  distinguish  between  a  neglected  farm  and  a  poor 
farm. 

323.  Physical  properties  of  the  soil.  —  Ease  of  tillage 
is  an  important  factor  in  the  cost  of  production.  In 
general,  the  loamy  and  sandy  soils  are  easiest  to  till. 
Such  soils  can  be  worked  soon  after  a  rain  and  can  be 
worked  earlier  in  the  spring.  This  makes  it  possible  to 
do  much  more  work  in  the  year. 

Ease  of  working  and  fertility  are  antagonistic.  In 
general,  the  sandy  soils  are  easiest  to  work,  but  least 
fertile.  The  clays  usually  contain  more  plant^food,  but 
are  hard  to  work.  For  types  of  farming  that  require  a 
very  large  amount  of  labor,  the  ease  of  tillage  offsets  the 
cost  of  manure  and  fertilizers,  so  that  sandy  soils  are 
preferred.  For  types  that  require  little  labor,  ease  of 
working  is  gladly  sacrificed  for  greater  fertility.  A  soil 
that  is  ideal  for  timothy  or  wheat  or  pasture  is  far  from 
ideal  for  truck  growing. 

For  most  types  of  farming,  the  loamy  soils  are  best. 
They  are  fairly  easy  to  work  and  are  usually  fertile.  Such 
soils  are  adapted  to  the  widest  variety  of  crops,  and  allow 
for  diversified  farming. 

324.  Drainage.  —  Natural  drainage  is  best  if  it  is  not 
at  too  great  a  sacrifice  in  character  of  soil.  Soils  that  are 
coarse  enough  to  provide  good  drainage  are  often  too 
coarse  to  hold  fertility.  Some  of  the  loamy  soils  are 
good  in  both  respects.  Natural  drainage  lasts  and  re- 
quires no  bill  for  repairs. 

If  artificial  drainage  is  necessary,  the  present  condition 


CHOOSING  AND  BUYING  A   FARM  523 

of  drains  and  the  amount  and  cost  of  new  drains  should 
be  carefully  estimated. 

325.  Water  for  irrigation.  —  In  irrigated  regions,  land 
has  little  or  no  value  without  water.  The  amount  and 
character  of  the  water  supply  is  then  of  first  importance. 
The  danger  of  accumulation  of  alkali,  the  danger  of  a 
shortage  of  water,  and  the  cost  of  water  and  up-keep  of 
ditches  must  all  be  considered.  Also  the  legal  status  of 
the  water  right,  and  whether  there  is  danger  of  the  more 
extensive  use  of  prior  rights,  so  as  to  lessen  the  water 
supply  in  the  future. 

326.  Condition.  —  If  stumps,  stones,  serious  weeds,  or 
other  obstacles  are  present,  the  cost  of  removing  these 
should  be  considered. 

327.  Water  supply.  —  Water  is  very^  expensive  on 
farms.  When  labor  is  counted,  it  is  much  more  expen- 
sive than  in  cities. 

Occasionally,  a  farm  has  spring  water  piped  to  the 
buildings  so  that  there  is  practically  no  expense  for  water. 
Unfortunately,  the  conditions  that  make  this  possible 
sometimes  result  in  poor  farm  land.  If  there  is  an  abun- 
dant supply  of  good  water  that  can  be  pumped  by  a  wind- 
mill, the  supply  is  fairly  satisfactory.  Many  farms  do 
not  have  water  enough,  or  the  water  is  of  poor  quality, 
or  the  wells  are  too  deep  to  be  pumped  cheaply. 

328.  Improvements.  —  The  site  of  the  farmstead,  its 
location  with  respect  to  the  fields,  the  number  and  kind 
of  buildings,  fences,  and  orchards  will,  of  course,  be  care- 
fully inspected.  Chief  attention  should  be  given  to  the 
roofs  and  foundations  and  frames  of  buildings,  and  least 
attention  to  paint.  The  arrangement  or  possible  rear- 
rangement for  convenience  in  work  is  of  importance. 

But  one  should  be  careful  not  to  buy  a  farm  merely  for 


624  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

its  buildings.  Many  western  men  who  are  buying  eastern 
farms  are  buying  buildings.  The  farms  look  cheap,  be- 
cause the  buildings  are  worth  more  than  the  price  asked. 
But  there  is  no  profit  from  buildings.  In  very  many  cases, 
the  farms  never  did  pay.  The  early  settler  made  his 
little  income  by  lumbering,  and  used  a  generous  amount 
of  lumber  for  buildings.  The  lumber  is  gone,  the  farms 
have  such  poor  soils  that  they  do  not  pay  for  working. 
Of  course,  this  does  not  apply  to  the  thousands  of  eastern 
farms  that  have  rich  soils,  but  good  soils  are  not  given 
away  with  a  present  thrown  in. 

329.  Climate.  —  The  climate  of  the  region  should  be 
studied  as  indicated  in  the  preceding  chapter.  Often 
there  is  a  great  difference  in  climate  in  a  few  miles.  One 
must  be  on  the  lookout  for  such  differences. 

330.  Healthfulness  is,  of  course,  of  great  importance. 
The  general  prevalence  of  malaria  or  other  diseases 
should  be  considered.  Sometimes  one  buys  a  farm  ex- 
pecting the  conditions  to  improve,  but  one  should  be  very 
careful  about  locating  in  a  region  where  the  people  are 
not  generally  healthy. 

331.  Roads  and  markets.  —  How  serious  a  handicap 
distance  to  market  is,  depends  on  the  type  of  farming  and 
the  roads.  If  roads  are  good,  the  handicap  is  not  so 
serious  with  some  kinds  of  farming.  If  these  types  of 
farming  are,  for  other  reasons,  not  adapted  to  the  region, 
then  distance  to  market  is  a  very  serious  matter. 

Local  markets  are  of  much  importance  not  only  in 
selling  but  in  buying.  Their  importance  is  less  for  grain 
and  live-stock  than  for  perishable  products. 

Much  more  important  than  the  local  markets  are  the 
railroad  facilities  for  reaching  important  cities.  A  farm 
located  on  a  trunk  line  of  railroad  is  worth  more  than  a 


CHOOSING  AND  BUYING  A   FARM  525 

similar  farm  on  a  branch  line.  The  more  rapid  shipment 
and  travel,  as  well  as  the  better  advertising  that  the 
region  receives,  are  of  great  importance. 

332.  Neighbors.  —  The  character  of  the  neighbors  is 
just  as  important  from  the  standpoint  of  profits  as  from 
the  standpoint  of  the  home.  One's  success  is  very  largely  i 
controlled  by  the  community.  Except  in  a  few  cases,  ^ 
such  as  when  products  are  grown  for  selling  in  the  home 
market,  the  type  of  farming  should  be  the  same  as  that 
of  the  community.     (See  page  98.) 

The  character  of  the  labor  supply  is  also  of  great  im- 
portance. If  the  farm  boys  of  the  neighborhood  are 
planning  to  be  farmers,  they  furnish  the  best  farm  labor. 

333.  Taxes.  —  The  tax  rate  has  little  significance  when 
different  regions  are  compared;  because  farms  in  one 
region  may  be  assessed  at  nearly  full  value  and  in  other 
regions  at  less  than  half  value.  The  amount  of  taxes 
paid,  and  the  cash  value  of  the  farm  should  be  used  to 
see  what  the  tax  rate  really  is. 

334.  Community  improvements.  —  Telephones,  trol- 
leys, churches,  and  schools  all  represent  investment  by 
the  community.  If  these  are  not  developed,  they  must 
be  gone  without  or  must  be  paid  for  by  the  farms  in  the 
future.  Every  community  improvement  adds  to  the 
value  of  farm  land. 

335.  Prospective  development.  —  The  probable  de- 
velopment of  the  region  must  be  considered.  The  possi- 
bility of  new  railroads,  trolleys,  and  improved  wagon 
roads  should  be  taken  into  account. 

The  possibility  of  a  rise  in  land  values  from  these  or 
other  causes  is  a  very  important  consideration.  A  very 
large  part  of  the  profit  in  farming  in  many  regions  comes 
from  increases  in  land  values.     Land  in  America  is  a 


526 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 
Score  Card  for  Farms 


Size 

1.  Adapted  to  kind  of  farming 
Fields 

2.  Shape  and  size        .     .     .     . 

3.  Nearness  to  farmstead    .     . 

Topography 

4.  As  affecting  ease  of  cultiva- 

tion        

5.  As  affecting  production 

6.  As    affecting    erosion    and 

loss  of  fertility     .... 

7.  As  affecting  air  drainage 

Fertility 

8.  Natural 

9.  Condition 

Physical  properties  of  the  soil 

10.  As  affecting  economy  of  1 

cultivation      ....    I 

11.  As   affecting   number    of   | 

days  of  labor  ....  J 

12.  As  affecting  loss  of  soil  fertil- 

ity     

13.  As  affecting  kinds  of  possible 

crops     

Drainage 

14.  Natural 

15.  Artificial 

Condition 

16.  Freedom       from       stumps, 

stones,  weeds,  waste  land, 
etc 

Climate 

17.  As  affecting  animal  and  crop 

production 

18.  As  affecting  number  of  days 

of  labor 


Names  op  Farms 


CHOOSING   AND  BUYING  A   FARM 


527 


Score  Card  for  Farms  —  Continued 


Healthfulness 

19.  As  an  economic  factor 
Location 

20.  Distance  to  market     .     .     . 

21.  Roadways 

22.  Local  markets 

23.  Shipping  facilities        .     .     . 

24.  Neighbors   as  an  economic 

factor    

25.  Labor  supply  of  neighbor- 

hood        

26.  R.  F.  D.,  telephone,  trolleys, 

etc 

27.  Churches,     school,     grange, 

etc.,  as  economic  factors    . 
Taxes 

28.  Per  cent  on  cash  value    .     . 
Water  supply 

29.  Running  water,  wells       .     . 
Improvements 

30.  Site  of  farmstead 

31.  House  as  adapted  to  needs  of 

farm 

32.  Other  buildings       .     .     .     . 

33.  Fences  ;  kind,  condition,  ar- 

rangement       

34.  Timber,      orchards,      vine- 

yards, etc 

Investment 

35.  ProbabiUty  of  an  increase  in 

value 

Acreage 

36.  Total  acres 

37.  Acres  tillable 

38.  Acres  pasture  not  tillable     . 

39.  Acres  woods 

40.  Acres  roads,  waste,  etc. 

E^riMATED  TOTAL  VALUE  OF 

41.  Tillable  area 

42.  Pasture 

43.  Woods 

44.  Barns 

45.  Houses 

Total 

Price  asked 


Acres 


Acres 


Acres 


528  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

business  investment  the  same  as  railroads  or  bonds.  Its 
probable  future  value,  as  well  as  its  earning  power,  should 
be  considered.  In  addition,  land  has  a  home  value.  If 
one  is  to  make  his  living  from  the  farm,  he  should  not 
let  the  home  value  overshadow  the  business  value  that 
must  sustain  the  home.  Neither  should  he  ignore  the 
home  value.     Both  are  important. 

336.  Map  of  the  farm.  —  Before  a  farm  is  purchased, 
one  should  make  a  map  of  it  showing  the  field  lines  and 
fence  lines.  This  may  be  sketched  fairly  rapidly.  One 
can  then  see  how  the  farm  looks  on  paper.  Many  a  good 
looking  farm  loses  its  good  looks  when  a  map  is  made, 
showing  the  location  of  ditches,  streams,  fences,  etc. 
Each  field  should  be  marked  with  its  crop  and  area; 
this  gives  a  picture  of  the  amount  of  waste  land  and  poor 
land. 

337.  Score  card  for  farms.  —  When  examining  farms, 
it  is  well  to  use  a  score  card  like  the  above.  Each 
farm  may  be  marked  on  each  of  the  points,  using  the 
words  excellent,  very  good,  good,  fair,  poor,  or  very  poor. 
Or  the  corresponding  abbreviations,  E.,  VG.,  G.,  F.,  P.,  or 
VP,  may  be  used. 

The  areas  of  different  kinds  of  land  and  estimated  values 
are  filled  in  with  figures.  The  estimated  value  of  the 
tillable  land,  buildings,  etc.,  will  be  of  much  help  if  care- 
fully made.  One  should  be  careful  not  to  assign  too  high 
a  value  to  land  that  will  not  grow  crops.  Buildings 
should  be  estimated  in  accordance  with  their  value  for 
the  use  intended  rather  than  for  their  cost. 

The  chief  purposes  of  a  score  card  are  to  make  the  ex- 
amination systematic  and  prevent  one  from  forgetting 
any  points. 

338.  Effect  of  amount   of  money  available.  —  If  one 


CHOOSING  AND  BUYING  A   FARM  529 

has  plenty  of  money,  or  can  secure  it  at  reasonable  in- 
terest rates,  it  usually  pays  best  to  buy  a  fairly  large 
farm  that  is  in  first-class  condition  in  every  way.  One  that 
has  rich  soil  well  cared  for,  good  fences  and  good  buildings. 
It  is  nearly  always  cheaper  to  buy  improvements  already 
made  than  it  is  to  make  them.  Buildings,  fences,  drains, 
and  other  improvements  usually  do  not  add  their  cost 
to  the  selling  value  of  the  farm.  The  superficial  things, 
such  as  paint  and  cleaning  up  of  rubbish,  usually  add 
much  more  than  their  cost  to  the  selling  value. 

If  one  is  short  of  money,  it  is  evident  that  something 
must  be  sacrificed.  He  cannot  then  buy  the  best  farm, 
even  if  he  does  know  that  it  is  the  best  bargain.  In 
such  a  case,  it  sometimes  pays  to  buy  with  a  view  to  sell- 
ing in  a  few  years  and  buying  a  better  place.  If  this  is 
done,  the  purchase  should  have  the  probable  selling  value 
as  one  of  its  important  considerations. 

Many  times  a  good  profit  can  be  made  by  buying  a 
farm  that  is  really  good  but  that  is  a  little  neglected, 
improving  it  and  selling. 

But  if  one  is  buying  for  a  permanent  home,  what  should 
he  sacrifice  first  in  order  to  make  the  most  of  his  limited 
capital  ?  Should  it  be  area,  richness  of  soil,  buildings,  or 
some  other  point?  In  such  a  case,  the  most  important 
consideration  is  what  can  be  made  of  the  place  in  a  life- 
time. There  are  some  points  that  are  permanent,  un- 
changeable conditions ;  others  may  be  remedied  as  time 
and  money  become  available.  Under  such  conditions, 
the  unchangeable  points  should  be  considered  first.  If 
one  has  a  sufficient  area  of  tillable  land  that  is  level  and 
naturally  fertile,  other  things  may  be  added  later,  as 
money  and  time  are  available.  Drains  may  be  added, 
fences  built,  buildings  put  up,  and  trees  planted.  But  if 
2m 


630  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

one  invests  his  small  capital  in  good  buildings  and  fences, 
with  too  little  or  too  poor  land,  he  is  indeed  handicapped. 

339.  Cato's  advice  on  buying  a  farm.  —  Few  if  any  of 
these  ideas  on  choosing  a  farm  are  new.  It  is  interesting 
to  see  how  well  they  agree  with  some  of  the  writers  of  two 
thousand  years  ago.  Some  of  Cato's  writings  as  trans- 
lated by  "  A  Virginia  Farmer  "  in  "  Cato's  Farm  Manage- 
ment "  are  interesting. 

"  When  you  have  decided  to  purchase  a  farm,  be  careful 
not  to  buy  rashly;  do  not  spare  your  visits  and  be  not 
content  with  a  single  tour  of  inspection.  The  more  you 
go,  the  more  will  the  place  please  you,  if  it  be  worth  your 
attention.  Give  heed  to  the  appearance  of  the  neigh- 
borhood, —  a  flourishing  country  should  show  its  pros- 
perity. '  When  you  go  in,  look  about,  so  that,  when 
needs  be,  you  can  find  your  way  out,' 

"  Take  care  that  you  choose  a  good  climate,  not  sub- 
ject to  destructive  storms,  and  a  soil  that  is  naturally 
strong.  *  If  possible,  your  farm  should  be  at  the  foot  of  a 
mountain,  looking  to  the  west,  in  a  healthy  situation, 
where  labor  and  cattle  can  be  had,  well  watered,  near  a 
good-sized  town,  and  either  on  the  sea  or  a  navigable 
river,  or  else  on  a  good  and  much  frequented  road.  Choose 
a  place  which  has  not  often  changed  ownership,  one  which 
is  sold  unwillingly,  that  has  buildings  in  good  repair. 

"  Beware  that  you  do  not  rashly  contemn  the  experi- 
ence of  others.  It  is  better  to  buy  from  a  man  who  has 
farmed  successfully  and  built  well. 

"  When  you  inspect  the  farm,  look  to  see  how  many 
wine  presses  and  storage  vats  there  are ;  where  there  are 
none  of  these,  you  can  judge  what  the  harvest  is.  On 
the  other  hand,  it  is  not  the  number  of  farming  imple- 
ments, but  what  is  done  with  them,  that  counts.     Where 


CHOOSING  AND  BUYING  A   FARM  531 

you  find  few  tools,  it  is  not  an  expensive  farm  to  operate. 
Know  that  with  a  farm,  as  with  a  man,  however  produc- 
tive it  may  be,  if  it  has  the  spending  habit,  not  much  will 
be  left  over." 

A  somewhat  different  point  of  view  was  expressed  by 
Xenophon. 

"  For  those  who  are  able  to  attend  to  their  affairs, 
however,  and  who  will  apply  themselves  to  agriculture 
earnestly,  my  father  both  practiced  himself  and  taught 
me  a  most  successful  method  of  making  profits,  for  he 
would  never  allow  me  to  buy  ground  already  cultivated, 
but  exhorted  me  to  purchase  such  as  from  want  of  care 
or  want  of  means  in  those  who  had  possessed  it,  was  left 
untilled  and  unplanted.  He  used  to  say  that  well  cul- 
tivated land  cost  a  great  sum  of  money  and  admitted  of 
no  improvement,  and  he  considered  that  land  which  is 
unsusceptible  of  improvement  did  not  give  the  same 
pleasure  to  the  owner  as  other  land,  but  he  thought  that 
whatever  a  person  had  or  bought  up  that  was  continually 
growing  better  afforded  him  the  highest  gratification." 

Both  points  of  view  are  good.  If  one  is  sure  that  he  is 
buying  a  "  diamond  in  the  rough  "  he  may  well  buy  a 
neglected  farm.  He  must,  however,  be  sure  that  it  is 
really  naturally  good. 

340.  Buying  a  farm.  —  After  one  has  decided  on  the 
farm  to  buy,  he  should  examine  the  abstract.  Usually 
the  seller  furnishes  an  abstract  brought  down  to  date. 
If  he  does  not  do  so,  the  buyer  should  have  one  made,  as 
he  cannot  afford  to  purchase  a  place  without  knowing 
that  the  title  is  good. 

Frequently,  a  contract  for  sale  is  made  before  the 
parties  are  ready  to  make  the  transfer.  This  contract 
should  be  very  explicit  on  all  doubtful  points.     Growing 


532  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

crops  belong  to  the  buyer,  unless  otherwise  arranged,  but 
in  order  to  avoid  misunderstandings,  all  such  things 
should  be  in  the  contract.  Fence  posts  and  fences  that 
have  been  used,  go  with  the  farm,  but  posts,  lumber,  wood, 
and  fence  wire  that  have  never  been  used,  also  all  har- 
vested crops,  are  personal  property  and  do  not  go  with 
the  farm.  But  it  is  much  better  to  go  over  all  possible 
points  of  difference  in  advance,  so  as  to  avoid  misunder- 
standings. 

Frequently,  the  farm  equipment  and  stock  can  be 
bought  with  the  farm  at  a  price  that  will  pay. 

It  is  often  wise  to  see  how  much  a  bank  will  loan  on  the 
place.  If  by  borrowing  at  a  bank,  money  enough  is 
available  to  make  a  cash  offer,  it  is  well  to  offer  cash.  In 
many  cases,  an  offer  of  all  cash  will  bring  a  considerable 
reduction  in  price. 

The  deed  should  ordinarily  be  drawn  by  a  lawyer,  but 
this  does  not  mean  that  one  should  assume  that  it  will  be 
correct.  Very  many  persons  sign  papers  drawn  up  by 
lawyers  without  reading  them  carefully,  assuming  that 
everything  is  all  right.  Nothing  should  be  assumed.  All 
papers  should  be  examined  more  carefully  than  if  one  had 
drawn  them  himself.  The  writer  has  had  a  number  of 
contracts  drawn  for  the  purchase  of  farms,  and  in  about 
one-third  of  the  cases,  the  lawyer  has  made  a  mistake. 
Usually  these  have  been  found  by  careful  reading;  but  in 
one  case  the  lawyer's  error  made  the  writer  pay  the  taxes. 
He  was  directed  to  draw  a  contract  so  that  the  seller  paid 
all  taxes  for  the  year  1906,  but  instead  drew  it  with 
some  legal  verbiage  that  called  for  payment  of  taxes 
assessed  before  January  1,  1907.  It  happened  that  year 
that  the  legal  assessment  was  delayed  a  few  days  after 
January  1.     Lawyers  are  just  about  as  accurate  as  other 


CHOOSING   AND  BUYING  A   FARM  533 

persons ;  that  is,  very  inaccurate.  The  object  of  having 
a  lawyer  is  that  he  may  help  one  to  avoid  mistakes. 
There  will  be  mistakes  enough  after  the  lawyer  and  the 
interested  parties  have  all  done  their  best  to  avoid  them. 
All  deeds,  mortgages,  releases,  and  similar  papers  should 
be  recorded  at  once  with  the  county  clerk  or  other  official 
in  charge  of  records. 

341.  Selection  of  farms  for  schools  and  colleges.  — 
Farms  for  schools  and  colleges  should  be  selected  for 
their  value  in  teaching.  Such  farms  should,  therefore, 
be  typical  of  as  large  an  area  as  possible.  If  several 
soil  types  and  other  conditions  can  be  secured,  so  much 
the  better.  Since  schools  wish  to  teach  many  subjects,  it 
is  of  great  importance  that  there  be  soils  adapted  to  as 
many  kinds  of  crops  as  possible,  grain,  fruit  and  vegeta- 
bles. Since  many  farmers  will  wish  to  come  to  the  institu- 
tion, the  railroad  facilities  should  be  good.  There  should 
also  be  ample  hotel  accommodations.  This  usually  means 
a  fair  sized  town. 

342.  Farms  for  charitable  and  reformatory  institu- 
tions. —  All  such  institutions  have  an  abundance  of 
cheap  labor  and  a  large  demand  for  vegetables,  milk,  and 
eggs.  This  calls  for  the  most  intensive  type  of  farming. 
In  many  cases,  it  is  hoped  that  the  inmates  may  be  trained 
in  farming,  so  that  they  may  become  farm  hands  or,  in 
some  cases,  farmers.  For  persons  who,  for  some  reason, 
have  not  been  able  to  get  along  well  in  the  world,  it  is  of 
great  importance  that  land  be  secured  that  will  respond  to 
care.  If  interest  is  to  be  aroused  in  farming,  the  soil  must 
be  such  that  there  is  a  response  to  the  efforts  expended  on 
it.  From  the  business  standpoint  of  economy  in  running 
such  an  institution,  and  from  the  standpoint  of  the  greatest 
good  to  the  inmates,  good  land  should  be  selected. 


634  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

The  cost  of  even  the  best  land  is  a  very  small  item  in 
running  such  an  institution.  The  land  selected  should  be 
good  land,  or  land  that  can  easily  be  made  good.  The 
best  soil  type  is  a  loam  or  silt  loam,  as  these  types  are 
adapted  to  vegetables  and  other  hand  labor  crops.  If  a 
variety  of  soils  can  be  secured,  so  much  the  better. 

In  the  Eastern  States  it  is  sometimes  possible  to  get  such 
soils  in  valleys  in  connection  with  forest  land.  One  or 
two  thousand  acres  of  forest  and  several  hundred  acres  of 
farm  land  makes  a  good  combination  for  such  institutions. 
The  forest  furnishes  winter  work.  Its  products  may  be 
used  for  buildings  and  for  making  furniture  to  use  and 
sell. 

Many  other  points,  such  as  railroads  and  water  supply, 
must  be  considered. 

References 

How  to  Choose  a  Farm,  T.  F.  Hunt. 

Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  I,  pp.  133-139. 

Farm  Management,  F.  W.  Card,  pp.  56-69. 

The  Farmer's  Business  Handbook,  I.  P.  Roberts,  pp.  153-169. 

The  Young  Farmer,  T.  F.  Hunt,  pp.  57-87. 


CHAPTER  20 
SOME    SUCCESSFUL   FARMS 

CHARACTERISTICS   OF   SUCCESSFUL   FARMS  AND  HOW  TO 
FIND   THEM 

No  farm  can  be  called  successful  that  does  not  main- 
tain its  productivity,  pay  all  farm  expenses,  interest 
on  the  capital,  pay  for  work  done  by  members  of  the 
family,  and,  in  addition,  leave  the  operator  good  pay  for 
his  year's  work ;  that  is,  a  good  labor  income. 

Sometimes  a  person  who  desires  to  find  a  profitable 
farm  starts  out  by  looking  for  unusual  types  of  farming. 
Sometimes  the  attempt  is  to  find  a  farm  that  agrees  with 
some  theory  of  what  a  successful  farm  is  thought  to  be. 
This  has  sometimes  been  a  farm  that  keeps  the  greatest 
number  of  cows  per  acre,  secures  the  largest  crop  yields, 
uses  green  manure,  or  some  other  point  that  agrees  with 
the  searcher's  fancy. 

By  survey  methods,  when  the  capital,  receipts,  and 
expenses  on  each  farm  in  a  region  are  recorded,  one  finds 
the  really  successful  farms.  Usually  they  are  farms  that 
are  much  like  those  of  the  neighbors,  but  that  are  more 
efficient  for  some  reason.  Occasionally,  the  very  profit- 
able farm  is  entirely  different  from  the  other  farms  of  the 
region. 

Of  the  49  farms  in  Table  22,  pages  134  to  140,  only 
8  are  very  different  from  the  farms  of  the  neighbors. 

A  farm  may  be  very  successful  for  the  amount  of  capital 

535 


536  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

that  the  owner  has,  or  successful  for  the  area  used,  or 
successful  for  a  farm  operated  by  a  woman,  or  successful 
under  some  other  condition.  But  if  we  wish  to  see  what 
the  principles  of  successful  farm  organization  and  man- 
agement are,  we  can  best  determine  them  by  studying 
farms  that  are  not  so  limited. 

The  most  successful  farmers  usually  pass  through  many 
years  before  they  are  able  to  secure  the  capital  and  other 
conditions  that  enable  them  to  make  large  profits  in  a  year. 
All  the  time  they  may  be  doing  the  best  thing  with  their 
limitations,  but  only  when  they  overcome  the  limitations 
do  they  make  examples  of  the  most  efficient  farm  organi- 
zation. 

Some  persons  are  inclined  to  say  that  it  is  all  in  the  man. 
But  the  unusual  man  can  only  express  himself  by  definite 
acts.  By  studying  many  farms,  it  is  possible  to  see  in 
just  what  way  the  successful  farm  or  its  management 
differs  from  the  other  farms  of  the  region.  Merely  being 
an  "  unusual  man  "  does  not  amount  to  anything,  unless 
one  does  something  definite.  Successful  farms  differ 
from  unsuccessful  ones  by  perfectly  tangible  things.  The 
farm  may  be  large,  so  that  labor  and  equipment  are  more 
efficiently  used.  It  may  be  that  there  are  three  or  four 
important  products  rather  than  one,  and  that  these  fit 
together  so  that  they  can  be  produced  without  much  more 
labor  than  one  or  two  products  require.  It  may  be  that 
the  crop  yields,  or  the  production  of  animals,  are  increased 
without  proportionate  increase  in  cost.  Sometimes  the 
results  are  due  to  a  better  soil,  or  some  other  natural 
factor.  Sometimes  a  farmer  may  work  harder,  or  be  able 
to  get  his  men  to  work  harder,  than  the  average,  but  either 
or  both  of  these  do  not  go  very  far  unless  some  other  fac- 
tors, usually  one  or  all  of  the  above,  are  combined  with  the 


SOME  SUCCESSFUL  FARMS 


537 


work.  There  is  nothing  mysterious  about  successful 
farms.  In  fact,  most  of  them  do  not  attract  much  at- 
tention from  the  passer-by.  Nearly  always  the  successful 
farm  has  some  points  where  it  could  be  improved  by 
applying  principles  used  on  other  farms. 

Records  are  here  given  of  five  farms.  One  is  a  dairy 
and  crop  farm  that  is  typical  of  hundreds  of  successful 
farms  in  the  United  States.  One  is  a  diversified  crop 
farm  that  uses  animals  as  scavengers,  also  typical  of  hun- 
dreds of  successful  farms.  One  is  a  diversified  crop  farm. 
One  is  a  specialized  farm  run  by  a  woman.  One  is  a  dairy 
and  crop  farm  that  is  given  to  show  a  method  of  farm 
analysis,  or  study. 

A    SUCCESSFUL  DAIRY   AND  CROP   FARM 

The  farm  is  located  about  a  mile  from  a  railroad  station 
about  250  miles  from  New  York.  Products  are  shipped 
to  New  York  to  be  sold  at  wholesale  prices,  or  are  sold 
to  local  buyers  who  ship  them.     The  farm  contains  211 

Capital  Invested  in  the  Farm  Business 


Farm 

Machinery  and  tools 

4  horses 

3 1  cows,  pure-bred  and  grade  Holstein, 

9  heifers,  1  bull         

31  cows,  7  heifers,  1  bull       .     .     .     . 
30  ewes,  grade  Shropshire     .     .     .     . 

25  ewes 

75  hens      

Feed,  seed,  and  supplies       .     .     .     . 

Decrease  of  investment 


April  1,  1907 

Apbil  1,  1908 

$10,000 

$10,000 

900 

900 

450 

450 

3,175 



3,085 

240 



200 

49 

49 

612 

612 

$15,426 

$15,296 

130 

538 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


acres,  of  which  129  acres  were  in  crops  in  1908,  and  about 
80  acres  in  pasture.  The  soil  in  crops  is  classified  by  the 
Bureau  of  Soils  as  Volusia  loam.  The  cropped  land 
extends  up  a  hill  that  rises  200  feet  above  the  buildings. 
The  pasture  is  on  a  lowland  soil  called  Dunkirk  clay  loam. 

Detailed  List  of  Equipment  April  1,  1911^ 

4  walking  plows 

Sulky  plow 

2  shovel  plows,  1-horse  . 
Spring    tooth    harrow,  2- 

horse 

Smoothing  harrow,  1-liorse 

Weeder 

Grain  drill 

Roller 

Wheelbarrow  grass  seeder 
Hand  corn  planter  .  . 
Marker  and  coverer     . 

3  cultivators,  1-horse  . 

1  riding  cultivator,  2-horse 
Hand  potato  sprayer  .     . 

Mower 

Tedder 

Hay  rake        

2  hay  racks 

3  hay  cars,  forks,  etc. . 

1  The  values  of  equipment  are,  of  course,  far  below  cost,  as  many  of  the 
tools  have  been  used  many  years. 


115     Grain  binder 

$75 

40     Potato  digger 

35 

10     1  root  cutter 

8 

2  fanning  mills 

30 

35     Buzz  saw  .     .     . 

23 

5     Scales        .     . 

3 

5     Aerator     .     . 

5 

65     Cans  and  pails 

10 

20     2  brooders     . 

10 

8     Carriages 

165 

5     Milk  wagon  . 

8 

8     Democrat 

6 

12     2  heavy  wagons 

40 

40     2  cutters 

22 

5     Manure  sleds     . 

12 

20     Light  bobs    .     . 

10 

20     Heavy  bobs  . 

20 

20     Harness    .     .     . 

100 

16     Crates,  barrels,  etc 

8 

35     Small  tools    .     . 

20 

CROpa 

10  acres  corn  for  silo. 

15  acres  potatoes,  3300  bushels,  3168  bushels  sold  for  $1797. 

2  acres  cabbage,  20  tons,  sold  for  $118. 

2  acres  buckwheat,  30  bushels  sold  for  .1520. 
22  acres  oats,  1265  bushels,  545  bushels  sold  for  $366,  part  sold 
as  seed  oats. 

9  acres  wheat,  350  bushels  sold  for  $357. 
67  acres  timothy  and  clover,  about  100  tons,  sold  $110  worth. 

2  acres  old  apple  trees,  sold  $12. 


SOMJS  SUCCESS t^UL  FARMS  539 

Corn,  potatoes,  and  cabbage  are  planted  on  sod.  All 
are  followed  by  oats.  Part  of  the  oat  land  is  seeded  with 
grass,  and  part  is  followed  by  wheat  in  which  grass  is 
seeded.     Hay  is  left  two  to  three  years. 

Receipts 

Potatoes $1797 

Cabbage  $118,  buckwheat  $20 138 

Oats  $366,  wheat  $357 723 

Hay  $110,  apples  $12 122 

Milk 3841 

G  cows,  27  calves,  1  bull 716 

4.5  lambs,  5  ewes  $264,  wool  $63 327 

Eggs 69 

$7733 

Expenses 

Labor  paid $1286 

Machinery 90 

Buildings  and  fences 153 

Grain  feed 1193 

Seeds 90 

Fertilizer 78 

Bull 75 

Other  expenses 319 

Decrease  of  investment  in  cattle 90 

Decrease  of  investment  in  sheep 40 

$3414 

Summary 

Average  capital • $15,361 

Receipts 7,733 

Expenses 3,414 

Income  from  capital  and  operator's  labor    .....  4,319 

Interest  on  capital  at  5% 768 

Labor  income 3,551 

The  reason  that  this  farm  is  more  successful  than  those 
of  the  neighbors  is  primarily  due  to  the  combination  of 
good  size,  diversity,  and  good  production.  Some  of  the 
cows  are  pure-bred,  so  that  the  receipts  from  sale  of  calves 
help  out.     This  was  the  best  year  ever  experienced  on  the 


640  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

farm.  In  the  preceding  year,  the  labor  income  was  $2750. 
In  that  year,  five  horses  were  kept,  and  crops  were  not 
quite  so  good.  In  1911,  the  farm  was  under  different 
management.  The  income  from  capital  and  labor  was 
then  S517  less  than  in  1907.  Less  efficient  management 
also  resulted  in  less  milk.  Seven  horses  were  kept  when 
four  could  do  the  work.  That  the  farm  could  do  so  well 
even  with  these  conditions  shows  that  the  system  is  good. 
The  farm  had  also  increased  in  value  due  to  rise  in  land 
values,  so  that  the  capital  was  much  larger.  The  income 
was  sufficient  to  pay  5  per  cent  on  the  capital  and  leave 
$1620  for  labor  income. 

In  1908,  the  owner  did  the  work  on  this  farm  with  the 
help  of  2  hired-men  by  the  year,  and  one  man  for  8 
months,  and  some  day  help.  The  total  work  amounted  to 
a  little  over  4  men.  The  area  of  crops  grown  per  man  was 
about  30  acres.  It  usually  requires  3  men  on  such  a  farm 
when  no  crops  are  sold.  There  were  32  acres  of  crops  per 
horse.  The  amount  of  work  done  is  very  good  when  we 
consider  the  high  production  per  cow  and  the  good  crop 
yields. 

From  the  public  standpoint  such  farms  are  also  desirable. 
Each  horse  and  man  on  this  farm  is  contributing  over  twice 
as  much  as  the  average  farm  of  the  region  to  the  world's 
food  supply. 

The  ccws  averaged  nearly  9000  pounds  of  milk,  about 
double  the  state  average.  The  receipts  per  sheep  were 
also  very  high,  because  so  many  twin  lambs  were  raised 
and  sold.  The  receipts  per  ewe  from  lambs  and  wool 
amounted  to  $9.57. 

There  is  an  animal  unit^  for  each  3  acres  of  crops,  so 
that  the  land  can  be  manured  with  about  10  tons  of  ma- 

1  See  page  209  for  definition  of  animal  unit. 


SOME  SUCCESSFUL   FARMS  541 

nure  per  acre  every  three  years,  or  with  20  tons  every  six 
years. 

The  owner  of  this  farm  rented  it  for  many  years.  He 
then  bought  it,  but  at  first  had  an  $8000  mortgage  on  the 
place.  This  was  paid  off,  the  daughters  were  sent  to 
college  (there  were  no  sons),  and  the  owner  is  now  in  com- 
fortable circumstances. 

This  farm  is  typical  of  the  most  successful  dairy  farms 
in  all  parts  of  the  country.  It  combines  cash  crops  with 
dairying.  In  New  York,  the  most  common  cash  crops 
on  different  successful  dairy  farms  are  timothy  hay, 
potatoes,  cabbage,  apples.  (See  pages  122  to  131.) 
Usually  the  farms  that  combine  two  of  these  crops  make 
more  than  the  farms  that  grow  only  one  cash  crop.^  In 
the  corn-belt,  the  common  cash  crop  that  combines  well 
with  dairying  is  corn.  Sometimes  the  corn  is  marketed 
through  the  hog.  In  other  regions,  barley,  oats,  grass 
seed,  wheat,  etc.,  are  combined  with  dairying  to  make  the 
most  profitable  type  of  farming.  The  most  profitable 
type  of  farming  on  dairy  farms  in  the  cotton-belt  is  to 
raise  corn  and  hay  for  feed  and  cotton  to  sell. 

A    SUCCESSFUL   GENERAL    FARM 

This  farm  is  6  miles  from  a  small  village,  1§  miles  from 
a  railroad,  and  about  50  miles  from  Buffalo.  It  contains 
330  acres,  nearly  all  of  which  is  tillable ;  228  acres  were  in 
crops  other  than  pasture  in  1911.  The  soils  are  classified 
by  the  Bureau  of  Soils  as  Dunkirk  fine  sandy  loam  and 
Dunkirk  gravelly  loam. 

1  New  York,  Cornell  Bulletin  295,  pages  506  to  509  and  pages  511  to 
628. 


542  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

Capital,  Invested  in  the  Farm  Business 


April  1,  1910 


April  1,  1911 


Farm 

Machinery  and  tools 

17  horses,  2  colts 

15  horses,  3  colts 

4  cows,  1  bull,  23  steers   .... 

4  cows,  26  steers 

4  brood  sows,  18  other  hogs      .     . 
4  brood  sows,  15  other  hogs,  5  pigs 

50  hens      

Supplies  and  cash  in  use       .     .     . 

Increased  investment    .... 


$30,000 

807 

2670 


1024 

224 

38 
1,115 

$35,878 

140 


$30,000 

854 


2,560 
1,096 


$36,018 


Detailed  List  of  Equipment  April  1,  1912 


Manure  spreader.     . 

4  walking  plows   .     . 
2  shovel  plows 

2  spring  tooth  harrows 
2  spike  tooth  harrows 
2  grain  drills    .     .     . 

Roller 

Grass  seeder     .     . 
Potato  planter 

5  hand  corn  planters 
5  walking  cultivators 
2  riding  cultivators 
Potato  sprayer 

2  mowers     . 
Hay  rake     .     . 
4  hay  racks 

3  hay  cars,  forks,  rope. 


etc 


20 
5 
15 
15 
30 
10 
5 
20 
5 
10 
30 
12 
40 
12 
20 
30 


Grain  binder  . 

$40 

Corn  binder  . 

15 

Bean  harvester 

15 

Potato  digger 

40 

Feed  cooker  . 

10 

Fanning  mill . 

5 

Scales    .     . 

5 

Wagon  scales 

30 

Cans  and  pails 

5 

4  carriages 

120 

3  wagons  .-    . 

45 

2  cutters    .     .  - 

20 

2  pairs  bobs  . 

20 

Harness 

75 

Crates,  barrels,  etc. 

25 

Small  tools     .     . 

25 

Crops  Grown  in  1911 


$854 


6  acres  corn,  300  bushels. 
15  acres  potatoes,  1100  bushels  sold  for  $744. 
30  acres  beans,  330  bushels,  286  sold  for  $629. 
17  acres  oats,  590  bushels. 

80  acres  wheat,  1600  bushels,  1400  bushels  sold  for  $1400. 
65  acres  timothy  and  clover,  65  tons,  60  tons  sold  for  $1320. 
15  acres  alfalfa,  33  tons. 


SOME  SUCCESSFUL   FARMS  543 

Corn,  potatoes,  and  beans  are  grown  on  sod.  The  beans 
are  usually  followed  by  wheat.  Corn  and  potatoes  are 
followed  by  oats  or  barley,  and  these  by  wheat.  Grass 
is  always  seeded  with  wheat  and  is  usually  left  down  one 
year.  • 

Receipts 

Potatoes,  1100  bushels $744 

Beans,  286  bushels 629 

Wheat,  1400  bushels 1400 

Timothy,  60  tons 1320 

Straw,  5  tons 50 

23  steers 990 

3  horses        355 

150  lambs 667 

29  hogs  and  pigs 216 

Eggs  $2,  breeding  fees  $8,  team  labor  $30 40 

Increase  of  investment .  140 

$6551 
Expenses 

Labor  paid  S310,  value  of  board  furnished  $152,  value  of 

unpaid  labor  of  son  $312 $774 

Machinery  $167,  and  repairs  $65 232 

Fences  .$40,  feed  grinding  $10 50 

Horseshoeing  $60,  breeding  fees  $8 68 

Seeds       148 

Fertilizer 109 

Paris  green  $10,  twine  $25,  threshing  $100,  fuel  $10  .     .  145 

Insurance  $40,  taxes  $152        192 

Steers  $672,  horse  $91,  lambs  $415 1178 

$2896 
Summary 

Average  capital $35,948 

Receipts 6,551 

Expenses 2,896 

Income  from  capital  and  operator's  labor 3,655 

Interest  on  capital  at  5% 1,797 

Labor  income 1,858 

The  success  of  this  farm  is  primarily  due  to  the  combina- 
tion of  good  soil,  large  area  of  crops  grown,  and  such  a 
diversity  of  crops  that  they  can  be  grown  with  a  small 
labor  cost.     This  was  a  very  dry  year,  the  poorest  year 


544  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

in  seven  that  the  farmer  has  worked  this  place.  In  spite 
of  this  fact,  he  made  a  labor  income  of  $1858.  In  1908, 
he  made  a  labor  income  of  $3536  with  the  same  general 
system  of  farming. 

The  owner  did  the  work  with  the  help  of  one  man  for 
seven  months,  and  his  son  for  seven  months,  with 
some  day  help.  In  the  winter,  he  does  the  chores  alone. 
The  area  of  crops  grown  per  man  was  91  acres.  In  1908, 
when  crops  were  better,  more  work  was  required  in  har- 
vesting.    The  area  of  crops  per  man  was  then  76  acres. 

He  now  has  at  least  5  more  horses  than  are  needed,  but 
the  cost  of  horses  is  kept  very  low,  as  they  run  loose 
around  the  straw  stacks  and  get  grain  and  care  only  when 
they  work. 

A  carload  of  lambs  were  bought  in  September  and  sold 
January  1.  These  were  used  to  clean  up  the  fields  and 
stubble. 

The  steers  are  not  fattened  much.  They  are  used  to 
work  up  the  roughage  on  the  farm  and  are  sold  to  local 
butchers.  This  is  very  different  from  finishing  steers  for 
the  market  with  grain  feed.  In  the  region  where  this 
farm  is  located,  it  is  rarely  possible  to  fatten  steers  on 
grain  at  a  profit,  because  one  cannot  compete  with  the 
meat  produced  in  the  regions  where  grain  is  very  much 
cheaper.  These  steers  were  far  from  fat,  as  indicated 
by  the  price  received  for  them. 

The  farm  stock  used  up  the  wheat,  oats,  and  bean  straw, 
and  corn  stalks,  probably  amounting  to  100  tons  in  all. 
They  also  had  38  tons  of  hay,  300  bushels  of  corn,  and 
about  540  bushels  of  oats.  It  is  at  once  evident  that  the 
animals  received  little  grain.  In  1908,  when  crops  were 
good,  the  farmer  fed  almost  three  times  as  much  grain  per 
animal. 


SOME  SUCCESSFUL  FARMS  545 

The  animals  kept  provide  enough  manure  to  cover 
the  land  in  crops  with  10  tons  per  acre  every  five 
years. 

The  farmer  went  to  district  school,  then  worked  as  a 
hired-man  seven  years  until  he  was  23  years  old.  He  and 
his  brother  then  rented  80  acres  for  one  year,  paying  cash 
rent.  The  next  two  years,  he  rented  a  70-acre  farm  alone, 
paying  cash  rent.  Next  he  rented  110  acres  for  cash  rent 
for  five  years.  Then  he  rented  200  acres  on  shares  for  two 
years.  When  he  was  33  years  old,  he  rented  330  acres  on 
shares  and  worked  the  place  for  six  years.  He  then  bought 
90  acres  and  farmed  it  for  eleven  years.  He  then  bought  his 
present  farm  of  330  acres,  which  he  has  now  owned  seven 
years.  He  now  has  this  farm  all  paid  for  and  has  built  a  good 
new  house.  This  is  like  the  history  of  many  successful  farm- 
ers. It  takes  a  long  time  to  get  the  capital  necessary  to  farm 
well,  but  when  this  is  secured  and  combined  with  the  years 
of  experience,  more  money  is  made  in  a  few  years  than  was 
made  in  all  the  previous  years. 

The  system  of  farming  on  this  farm  is  typical  of  that 
followed  on  many  farms  as  far  west  as  Central  Kansas, 
Nebraska,  and  the  Dakotas.  The  cash  crops  vary  in 
different  regions.  In  one  region,  they  are  corn  and  oats, 
in  another  corn  and  wheat,  in  another  spring  wheat,  oats, 
and  barley.  In  any  event,  large  areas  of  these  crops  are 
grown.  Stock  are  used  to  work  up  the  waste  products 
and  some  of  the  grain.  If  grain  is  cheap,  the  animals  may 
be  fattened ;  if  not,  they  are  carried  through  on  roughage 
and  sold  without  finishing,  or  may  be  fattened  on  grass ; 
or  in  a  region  where  grain  is  usually  cheap,  they  may  be 
carried  over  on  roughage  in  the  hope  of  having  cheaper 
grain  to  fatten  on  the  following  year.  Most  of  the  profit 
is  expected  to  come  from  crops.  The  stock  work  down  the 
2n 


546 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


roughage  and  produce  manure.  They  require  little  labor 
and  are  not  expected  to  much  more  than  pay  for  their 
feed  in  most  years.  This  method  of  farming  appears 
very  rough  to  those  who  keep  fine  stock  and  to  those 
who  finish  their  meat  animals  for  the  top  price.  But  the 
farmers  who  have  a  large  area  of  cash  crops,  and  who 
follow  such  methods,  usually  make  money  and  have  good 
crop  yields. 

A  similar  system  where  the  cash  crops  are  cotton  and 
grain  is  described  in  Farmers'  Bulletin  364.  A  farm  that 
is  somewhat  similar  is  described  in  Farmers'  Bulletin  432. 
The  cash  crops  are  grain  and  apples. 

A   SUCCESSFUL    CROP    FARM 

This  farm  is  located  one  and  one-half  miles  from  a  rail- 
road station  about  325  miles  from  New  York.     It  contains 

Capital  Invested  in   the  Farm  Business 


Tenant 


April  1 


Landlord 


April  1 


Farm 

Machinery  and  tools 
G  horses,  2  colts 
7  horses,  2  colts 
4  cows       .     . 
3  cows       .     . 
2  cows,  2  calves 
Hogs    .... 
50  hens     .     .     . 
Supplies  and  cash  in  use 

Increase  of  investment 


1910 


1200 
300 


29 

38 

475 


$2822 
92 


1911 


1910 

$14,550 


1300 

225 

20 

38 

475 


29 


325 


$2914 


$14,904 
1121 


1911 

$15,450 
110 


120 
20 


325 


$16,025 


SOME  SUCCESSFUL.  FARMS 


547 


128  acres.  In  1911,  there  were  105  acres  in  crops.  The 
products  are  sold  at  wholesale  to  local  buyers  who  ship 
east  or  west,  according  to  the  demand.  The  farm  is 
share  rented.  The  results  for  tenant  and  landlord  are 
both  given. 


Detailed  List  of  Equipment  April  1,  1911 


2  walking  plows . 

1  shovel  plow 

2  spring  tooth  harrows 
1  spike  tooth  harrow 

1  weeder    . 
1  drill  .... 
1  roller       .     .     . 
1  grass  seeder 

1  cabbage  setter 

2  hand  corn  planters 

3  walking  cultivators 
2  riding  cultivators 

1  potato  sprayer 
1  orchard  sprayer    . 
1  potato  hiller    .     . 
1  mower    .... 


$12  1  tedder       .     .     . 

4  1  rake     .... 
15  2  hay  racks      .     . 

7  Hay  forks,  cars,  etc. 

17  1  grain  binder 

60  1  bean  harvester  . 

18  1  potato  digger     . 

5  1  fanning  mill  . 
18  1  scales  .... 

1  2  light  wagons 

12  2  heavy  wagons    . 

45  1  cutter 

20  1  pair  bobs 

220  Harness 

2  Crates,  barrels, 
30  Small  tools 


etc. 


S15 
10 
•10 
25 
70 
15 
30 
5 
5 
60 
60 
15 
15 
75 
20 
50 


$966 


Crops 

7  acres  corn,  350  bushels. 

9  acres  potatoes,  1400  bushels,  1124  bushels  sold  for  $804. 
15  acres  beans,  215  bushels,  204  bushels  sold  for  $438. 

5  acres  cabbage,  46  tons  sold  for  $1104. 

9  acres  oats,  300  bushels. 

2  acres  barley,  45  bushels. 
29  acres  wheat,  634  bushels  sold  for  $538. 
22  acres  timothy  and  clover,  30  tons,  2  tons  sold  for  $20. 

7  acres  apples,  about  1000  barrels  sold  on  trees  for  $1076. 


Potatoes,  cabbage,  corn,  and  beans  are  usually  grown  on 
sod.  Beans  are  usually  followed  by  wheat.  The  other 
tilled  crops  are  followed  by  oats,  and  oats  by  wheat. 
Grass  seed  is  included  with  the  wheat.  The  hay  is  left 
one  or  two  years. 


548 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 

Receipts 


Potatoes     

Beans 

Cabbage    

Wheat 

Hay 

Apples 

Veal  calves  and  1  cow 
Hogs  and  pigs     .     .     . 
Poultry  $25,  eggs  $100 
Outside  labor 
Increase  of  investment 


Expenses 


Labor  $375,  board  of  labor  $220  . 
Machinery  and  repairs  .... 
Buildings,  fences,  drains  .... 
Feed  $26  and  feed  grinding  $24     . 

Horseshoeing 

Breeding  fees 

Veterinary 

Seeds     

Fertilizer  $200,  spray  materials  $30 

Twine  and  threshing 

^laehine  work  hired 

Barrels,  bags,  crates 

Fuel  and  oil  for  farm  work   .     .     . 

Insurance   

25  calves 

2  cows 

Taxes 


$1606 


Tenant 

Landlord 

$595 

$25 

204 

125 

450 

650 

25 

25 

50 
15 

2 

10 
27 

27 

115 

115 

17 

17 

3 
9 

6 

2 

5 

20 

75 

80 
100 

$1188 


SOME  SUCCESSFUL  FARMS 

SUMMART 


549 


Average  capital 

Receipts 

Expenses 

Income  from  capital  and  labor  . 
Interest  on  capital  at  5%      .     .     . 

Labor  income 

Landlord's  per  cent  on  investment 


Landlord 

$15,465 
3,194 
1,188 
2,006 


13% 


Both  the  landlord  and  tenant  on  this  farm  are  doing 
well.  In  order  to  compare  the  results  with  farms  operated 
by  owners,  we  can  figure  what  the  labor  income  would 
have  been  if  the  tenant  had  owned  and  operated  the 
farm.  The  labor  income  would  then  have  been  $2334. 
In  1908,  a  different  tenant  worked  the  farm,  but  followed 
the  same  system  of  farming.  The  labor  income  was  4/hen 
$2392. 

The  success  of  this  farm  is  primarily  due  to  the  com- 
bination of  good  soil,  good  crops,  and  diversified  farming 
that  allows  efficient  use  of  horses  and  labor.  The  year 
was  a  dry  year,  but  the  crops  on  this  farm  were  good  for 
the  season.  Prices,  particularly  of  cabbage,  were  high 
enough  to  more  than  make  up  for  the  short  crop. 

The  farm  has  unusually  good  buildings  and  is  well  kept 
up  in  every  way.  While  it  is  primarily  a  crop  farm,  yet 
the  system  of  farming  provides  an  animal  unit  for  each 
7  or  8  acres  of  crops.  This  makes  it  possible  to  manure 
all  the  farm  with  about  10  tons  per  acre  every  7  or  8  years. 
In  order  to  have  a  cabbage  storage  house,  the  tenant  paid 
half  the  cost  of  building  one. 

The  few  cows  are  used  to  produce  veal  calves.  These 
are  bought  from  dairymen  and  are  allowed  to  suck  cows 


550  FARM  MANAGEMENT^ 

for  about  a  month.  In  this  way,  25  calves  were  bought 
and  sold  during  the  year. 

The  work  on  the  farm  is  done  by  the  tenant  and  one 
hired-man,  and  a  little  help  from  the  landlord  who  helped 
spray  and  prune  the  orchard.  Over  50  acres  of  crops  were 
raised  per  man,  in  addition  to  the  other  work  done.  This 
is  very  good,  particularly  when  we  consider  that  there 
were  21  acres  of  such  intensive  crops  as  potatoes,  cabbage, 
and  apples,  and  that  the  work  was  so  well  done.  The  horses 
raised  21  acres  of  crops  per  horse. 

The  tenant  on  this  farm  went  to  high  school  2  years, 
farmed  with  his  father  2  years.  He  then  had  about 
$500,  borrowed  as  much  more  for  horses  and  equipment, 
rented  75  acres  of  his  father  on  shares  for  2  years.  Next 
he  rented  a  farm  of  135  acres  for  3  years.  He  then  rented 
this  farm  for  a  period  of  five  years.  The  record  here 
given  is  the  first  year  on  this  lease.  He  is  now  28  years 
old  and  is  well  started  in  farming. 

This  system  of  farming  is  typical  of  the  apple  farms  of 
the  East.  Such  farms  are  usually  diversified  farms  with 
5  to  15  acres  of  apples  on  a  100-acre  farm.  In  1900,  in 
Orleans  County,  N.Y.,  76  per  cent  of  the  apple  trees 
were  in  orchards  having  less  than  600  trees,  or  less  than 
15  acres.  In  1910,  there  was  no  county  in  any  of  the 
Eastern  states  that  did  not  harvest  at  least  9  acres  of  other 
crops  for  each  acre  of  apples  harvested.  As  the  country 
grows  older,  the  newer  regions  in  parts  of  the  West  that 
have  tended  to  specialize  on  apples  will  doubtless  become 
more  diversified.  The  year's  work  is  then  better  dis- 
tributed. The  risks  of  failure  of  crop,  poor  prices,  and 
pests  are  also  less.  The  Eastern  apple  ,grower  expects 
to  live  and  pay  the  farm  expenses  from  his  farm,  and 
hopes  to  have  his  apple  crop  as  extra  profit.     This  man 


SOME  SUCCESSFUL   FARMS 


551 


sold  apples  without  picking  them.     A  more  usual  practice 
is  for  the  farmer  to  pick  and  barrel  the  apples. 

A    SUCCESSFUL    POULTRY    FARM    MANAGED    BY    A   WOMAN  ^ 

The  farm  contained  12  acres  in  the  edge  of  a  village 
about  350  miles  from  New  York.  Eggs  were  shipped  to 
a  wholesale  dealer  in  New  York. 

Capital  Invested  in  the  Farm  Business 


Farm 

Machinery  and  tools 

1300  White  Leghorn  hens,  40  cockerels 

1950  hens,  40  cockerels 

1  cow 

1  horse 

Feed  and  supplies 

Increase  of  inventory 


Nov.  1,  1911 

$6000 
400 


2520 
50 

200 

825 

$9995 


Crops 

The  crops  grown  were  3.5  acres  of  corn,  0.4  acre 
mangels,  1.3  acres  alfalfa,  0.5  acre  rape,  1  acre  young 
cherry  orchard  not  yet  bearing. 

Receipts 

10,007  doz.  eggs  at  wholesale S3002 

8346  eggs  for  hatching  at  $7  per  100 584 

584  hens,  35  roosters 478 

210  pullets 311 

963  cockerels 209 

Butter  $42,  calf  $11        53 

Corn  stalks  $15,  alfalfa  hay  $104 119 

Increase  of  investinent 600 

$5356 

1  The  record  of  this  farm  was  secured  by  E.  W.  Benjamin  of  the  De- 
partment of  Poultry  Husbandry,  Cornell  University. 


552  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

Expenses 

Labor  paid  $625,  value  of  unpaid  labor  of  daughter  $292  $917 

Machinery  and  repairs 85 

Buildings  and  repairs 48 

Grain  feed 1509 

Straw 65 

Seeds       3 

Fertilizer  $5,  spray  materials  $1.20 6 

Fuel  and  oil  $5,  kerosene  $9.60,  gasoline  $40     ....  55 

Carbolineum  $2,  egg  cases  $38 40 

Horseshoeing 8 

Insurance  $4.50,  taxes  $45 50 

$2786 
Summary 

Average  capital $9695 

Receipts 5356 

Expenses 2786 

Income  from  capital  and  unpaid  labor 2570 

Interest  on  capital  at  5  % 485 

Labor  income 2085 

The  success  of  this  farm  is  due  to  the  unusually  high 
production  of  eggs  per  hen,  and  to  the  unusual  success  in 
raising  chickens.  The  price  received  for  eggs  was  about 
3  cents  a  dozen  above  the  usual  wholesale  price  paid  in 
New  York,     This  increased  the  profit  by  S300. 

In  addition  to  the  work  of  the  woman  manager  and  her 
daughter,  one  man  was  hired  by  the  year  and  one  man  for 
6  months.  This  is  a  large  amount  of  labor  for  this  number 
of  hens,  but  the  high  egg  production  and  success  with 
chickens  seem  to  justify  the  extra  labor. 

The  other  successful  farms  here  recorded  are  the  more 
usual  examples  of  success,  in  that  their  success  is  due 
to  a  size  of  farm  and  types  of  farming  and  farm  organiza- 
tion that  use  labor  very  effectively  and  yet  secure  good 
production,  but  this  farm  succeeds  because  its  production 
is  so  good  as  to  offset  the  high  labor  cost. 

One  of  the  daughters  took  a  winter  course  in  poultry 


SOME  SUCCESSFUL   FARMS  553 

husbandry  in  a  college  of  agriculture,  then  started  the 
farm  in  1907.  The  mother  and  another  daughter  who  is 
a  college  graduate  now  run  the  place.  There  were  300 
pullets  the  first  winter.  The  stock  and  plant  has  been 
increased  each  year  up  to  its  present  size.  To  reach  a 
labor  income  of  $2000  in  four  years  is  very  unusual 
success. 

Diversified  farms  on  which  poultry  is  one  of  the  enter- 
prises are  a  more  common  type  of  successful  poultry  farm. 
See  No.  9,  page  135,  and  the  records  on  pages  444  to  473. 

RECORD  OF  A   YEAR's   BUSINESS   ON  A  FARM 

In  order  to  show  the  method  of  calculating  labor  in- 
come the  following  farm  record  is  given  on  a  record  blank. 
The  figures  and  words  in  italics  are  the  facts  that  were 
obtained  from  the  farm  or  that  were  calculated. 

Record  for  the  year  beginning  April  1,  \Q11,  and  ending 
April  1,  1^12. 

Operator's  name Age 

Post  Office County State,  N.Y. 

Distance  and  direction  of  the  farm  from  station  2\  miles  S.  E. 
Name  of  station 

How  many  years  has  the  present  operator  had  charge  of  the 
farm  ?  20. 

What  was  the  total  area  of  the  farm,  including  owned  land, 
rented  land,  and  land  worked  on  shares  ?    155  acres. 

How  many  of  the  above  acres  were  owned  by  the  operator  ? 
155. 

How  many  acres  were  cash  rented  ?  0.  How  many  acres  were 
share  rented  ?  0. 

Of  the  total  area  how  many  acres  were  in  woods?  0. 

How  many  acres  of  the  woodland  were  pastured?  0.  How 
many  acres  in  other  permanent  pasture?  15. 

How  many  acres  in  pasture  not  permanent  ?  8. 


554  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

Average  Capital  Invested  in  the  Farm  Business  ^ 


Farm 

Machinery  and  tools 

Live-stock  (from  page  558) 

Feed,  supplies,  etc 

Cash  kept  in  use 

Total 

Average  

Increase  


April  1,  1911 


$15,500 

1,201 

2,435 

930 

200 


April  1,  1912 


$15,500 
1,176 
2,645 
1,105 

200 


'  In  giving  values  of  farm,  machinery,  live-stock,  etc.,  give  the  value 
at  which  it  probably  could  bo  sold.  The  value  of  the  farm  at  the  end  of 
the  year  should  be  the  same  as  at  the  beginning  unless  definite  improve- 
ments that  add  to  its  value  have  been  made.  Rise  in  value  of  real  estate 
is  not  counted,  as  the  object  is  to  study  the  system  of  farming,  not  real 
estate  speculation.  Machinery  includes  wagons,  harness,  small  tools, 
and  other  equipment.  Feed  and  supplies  includes  grain,  hay,  and  other 
feed  on  hand  at  the  beginning  of  the  year  but  not  including  products 
held  for  sale. 


SOME  SUCCESSFUL  FARMS 

Crops  for  the  Year  19// 


555 


Chops  Grown 

Crops  Sold 

Chop 

Area 

Yield  per 
Acre 

Total  Crop 

Amount 
Sold 

Price 

Total 
Value 
Sold 

Corn  for  grain . . . 
Corn  for  silage . . 
Potatoes 

6 
6 

4 

22 

1 
15 

50  bu. 
12.5  tons 
158  bu. 
19  bu. 

300  bu. 

75  tons 
630  bu. 
420  bu. 

1000  bu. 
550  bu. 

475 

.60 

$285 

Field  beans 

Roots          (kind) 
beets 

Oats 

37  bu. 

Barley 

Wheat 

25 
X 

18 

6 

28  bu. 
X 

1.5  tons 

0 

700  bu. 
X 

27  tons 

590  bu. 

.95 

561 

Straw 

Hay,  clover  and 
timothy  

Alfalfa,            new 
seeding    

Seeds    (give    the 
kinds)  

1.4  tons 

27 

Apples,  bearing 
Apples,  not  bear- 
ing .... 

1 

8bbl. 
X 

8bbl. 
X 

4bbl. 

3 

(Give  any  other 
Fruit) 

peaches 

Truck,  etc.  (give 
the  kinds) 

1 

0 

0 

(Give  any  other 
cron)  

Sweet    corn    can- 
ning factory  . . . 

5 

18  tons 

$7. 

i9..', 

If  any  of  the  above  crops  were  grown  in  orchard  or  with  other 
crops  or  otherwise  double  cropped,  explain 

If  any  of  the  year's  crops  are  not  yet  sold,  give  the  crop  and 
amount  and  value  of  that  which  will  be  sold.  Beans,  400  bu., 
worth  $1000;  Hay,  1  ton,  $20. 

Total  sold  or  held  for  sale $2020 


556 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


Amount  and  Value  of  Animal  Products  sold  during  the  Year 

(Include  the  value  of  products  exchanged  for  groceries,  etc.     Do  not  m- 
clude  products  used  in  the  house.) 


Product 

Amount 
Sold 

Price 

Total 
Value 
Sold 

Butter  made  on  the  farm 

lb. 

lb.  fat 

lb. 

qt 

t 

lb. 

lb. 
gal. 

lb. 
doz. 

lb. 

Cream  sold  to  a  creamery  to  be 
made  into  butter 

Milk  sold  to   a  creamery  to  be 
made  into  butter  .         

$135 

Milk  sold  at  wholesale  to  a  retailer 
or  shipping  station 

Milk  and  cream  retailed  by  the 
farmer    ... 

63,875 

4^ 

2555 

Milk  sold  to  a  condensery 

Milk  sold  to  a  cheese  factory 

Cheese  made  on  the  farm 

Buttermilk 

Wool 

Eggs 

Breeding  fees 

200 
..  X  .. 
..  X  .. 

25  i 
..  X  .. 

50 

Hides 

Honey 

..X  .. 

6 

Total 

$2746 

Miscellaneous  Receipts 


Received  for  labor  or  team  work  done  off  the  farm  or 

for  use  of  machinery 

What  was  the  kind  of  work  ?  farm  ivork 

Received  for  cash  rent  for acres  in  this  farm. . . . 

Received  for  rent  of  buildings  on  the  farm 

Received  for  sirup  or  sugar 

Received  for  lumber,  posts,  wood,  etc 

Any  other  receipts 


$72 


SOME  SUCCESSFUL  FARMS 


557 


No. 

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558 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


Cash  Farm  Expenses  for  the  Year 


Amount  paid  for  labor  exclusive  of  household  help . 

New  machinery 

Repairs  of  machinery 

New  buildings 

Repairs  of  buildings 

Fences  

Drains 


Hay 

Silage 

Stalks 

Straw 

Shavings 

Grains  and  concentrated  feed 

Feed  grinding 

Silo  filling 

Corn  shredding 

Milk  cans,  etc 

Milk  expressage 

Ice 


Horseshoeing    > 

Breeding  fees 

Veterinary 

Milk  and  cow  testing,  acid,  etc 

Seeds 

Plants 

Trees 

Fertilizer 

Manure 

Spray  materials 

Twine 

Threshing 

Pressing 

Machine  work  hired 

Barrels 

Bags 

Crates 

Lumber  sawing 

Fuel  and  oil  for  farm  work 

Expressage,  commissions,  etc 

Insurance  on  buildings  and  contents 

Taxes,  including  school  tax  

Cash  rent  paid  for acres. . . . 

Other  farm  expenses 

Total 


SOME  SUCCESSFUL  FARMS  559 

Other  Expense  Items  not  Cash 

Value  of  board  furnished  to  farm  help  and  not  paid  for  in 
cash,  $16L 

Value  of  farm  work  done  by  members  of  the  family  and  not 
paid  for.  Do  not  include  the  value  of  the  farmer's  time  nor  the 
value  of  housework,  but  include  such  work  as  butter  making, 
chores,  etc.  At  usual  farm  wages,  what  would  it  have  cost  to  hire 
this  labor  ?  $100. 

General  Questions 

Value  of  operator's  house,  $4-500.  Other  houses,  $0.  Barns 
and  other  out-buildings,  $3000. 

If  the  number  of  cows  was  not  constant  through  the  year,  what 
would  the  average  number  be?   23^. 

If  any  pure-bred  stock  is  kept,  give  the  breed  and  number  of 
each  kind.     None. 

How  many  men  are  kept  by  the  year?  1.  Give  number  of 
other  men  hired  by  the  month  and  number  of  months  each 
worked.     1  man,  8  months.     Son  worked  about  2  months  in  summer. 

Give  the  approximate  number  of  days  of  day-help  hired  for 
haying,  harvesting,  silo  filling,  potato  digging,  etc.,  0. 

Was  the  present  farmer  ever  a  hired-man  or  tenant  ?  Both. 
How  long  as  each  ?  4  yr.  hired-man,  8  yr.  tenant. 

Give  particulars  of  how  he  got  started. 

Amount  of  mortgage  on  the  farm,  $1700. 

Number  of  persons  in  the  family  exclusive  of  hired  help,  7. 

Summary 

Average  capital  (p.  554) $20,44^ 

Receipts : 

Crops  1  (p.  555) $2020 

Animals  (p.  557) 173 

Animal  products  (p.  556) 2746 

Miscellaneous  (p.  556) 72 

Increase  of  capital  -  (p.  554) 360 

Total  receipts $6371 

'  Include  value  of  crops  that  will  be  sold. 

2  When  the  total  value  of  farm  and  equipment  increases  during  the 
year,  the  ineieaso  is  counted  as  a  receipt ;  and  when  it  decreases  during 
the  year,  the  decrease  is  counted  as  an  expense. 


560  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

Expenses : 

Animals  purchased  (p.  557)  .    $366 

Cash  farm  expenses  (p.  558) 1675 

Other  expenses  not  cash  (p.  559) 261 

Decrease  of  capital  ^   

Total  expenses $2303 

Income  from  capital  and  operators'  labor $3069 

Interest  on  capital  at  5% $1022 

Labor  income $2047 

1  See  note  2  on  page  559. 
FACTORS 

By  comparing  different  farms  in  the  same  region,  one 
may  see  how  they  differ  and  if  enough  farms  are  compared, 
may  learn  how  the  most  successful  farms  differ  from  the  less 
successful  ones.  Any  one  can  fill  out  a  blank  like  the  pre- 
ceding for  his  farm.  If  accounts  are  not  kept,  the  receipts 
and  expenses  may  be  given  as  nearly  as  possible.  The 
errors  will  not  be  so  serious  as  to  interfere  with  comparing 
the  efficiency  of  the  farm  with  other  farms.  The  following 
factors  aid  in  making  such  a  comparison  of  farms.  The  re- 
gion for  which  factors  are  given  is  a  very  prosperous  region. 

The  success  of  this  farm  is  primarily  due  to  the  good 
crop  yields,  the  diversity  of  the  business,  the  fairly  large 
acreage  of  crops,  good  production  per  cow,  and  efficient 
use  of  man  labor. 

The  farmer  went  to  district  school  until  he  was  18  years 
old,  hired  out  by  the  month  until  he  was  22,  then  rented  his 
father's  farm  of  145  acres  on  shares  for  8  years.  He  then 
bought  this  farm  and  has  been  on  it  14  years.  He  has  a 
neat,  well-kept  farm  with  good  buildings,  has  put  steam 
heat,  acetylene  light,  bath  room,  and  running  water  in  the 
house,  and  has  the  farm  nearly  paid  for. 


SOME  SUCCESSFUL  FARMS 

Factors 


661 


Average  fob 
THIS  Farm 


Average  of 
THE  Region 


Size  of  business. 

Capital 

Value  of  labor  directed      .     .     .     . 

Acres  farmed 

Acres  in  crops 

Animal  units 

Number  of  cows  *■ 

Diversity  of  business. 

Number  of  products  bringing  $500 

receipts   

Per  cent  of  receipts  from  crops  ,     . 

Production.^ 

Crop  index 

Receipts  per  cow  from  milk  and  its 

products 

Receipts  per  cattle  unit     .     .     .     . 

Efficiency  in  use  of  capital.^ 

Per  cent  of  area  in  crops  .     .     .     . 
Per  cent  of  capital  in  house   .     .     . 
Per  cent  of  capital  in  barns    . 
Value  of  barns  per  animal  unit  .     . 

Efficiency  in  use  of  labor.* 

Average  number  of  men    .     .     .     . 

Crop  acres  per  man 

Animal  units  per  man 

Productive  work  units  of  man  labor 

(page  350) 

Productive  work  units  per  man 

Number  of  horses 

Crop  acres  per  horse 

Productive  work  units  of  horse  labor 
Productive  work  units  per  horse 
Value  of  machinery  per  acre  of  crops 

Fertility. 

Crop  acres  per  animal  unit  *  .     .     . 
Cost  of  fertilizer  per  acre  of  crops  . 


$20,446 

$871 

155 

110 

33 

23h 


3 

42 


122% 


$12,037 

$433 

149 

93 

23 

9 


58 


100% 


$114 

$57 

$113 

$52 

71 

62 

22 

14 

15 

13 

$91 

$70 

2.8 

2.2 

39 

42 

12 

10 

755 

479 

270 

218 

7 

5.6 

16 

17 

465 

337 

66 

60 

$10.81 

$6.11 

3.3 

4.0 

91  ;J 

551* 

>  If  a  farm  has  other  important  animals,  they  must  be  considered. 
'  The  results  on  a  farm  may  be  due  to  high  or  low  crop  yields  or  pro- 
duction per  animal.     The  crop  index  is  a  comparison  with  the  average 


2q 


562  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

of  the  region  as  100  per  cent.  The  crop  yields  on  this  farm  were  22  per 
cent  above  the  average.  If  there  are  no  other  figures,  the  crops  may 
be  compared  with  the  state  average.  The  receipts  per  cow  from  milk 
give  an  idea  of  the  production  per  cow.  The  receipts  per  cattle  unit  are 
the  receipts  and  increase  inventory  from  dairy  products  and  cattle 
divided  by  the  number  of  cattle  units.  One  grown  animal,  or  2 
young  stock,  are  called  a  cattle  unit.  The  receipts  per  cow  are 
sometimes  good  when  the  receipts  per  cattle  unit  are  poor,  becauss  the 
young  stock  kept  does  not  increase  in  value  or  sell  for  enough  to  pay. 
Receipts  per  hen,  per  sheep,  or  for  other  animals  must  be  considered  if 
they  are  important  on  the  farm. 

The  approximate  amount  of  feed  used  on  the  farm  may  be  obtained 
by  adding  feed  purchased  to  crops  raised  and  not  sold. 

'  Sometimes  a  farm  has  so  little  land  in  crops  as  to  fail  to  pay.  Some- 
times the  capital  is  too  largely  invested  in  buildings.  This  farm  has  a 
rather  high  investment  in  buildings  for  its  size,  but  not  high  enough  to 
be  serious. 

*  The  crop  acres  and  animal  units  combined  show  that  the  men  are 
well  employed.  The  same  point  is  shown  by  the  productive  work 
units  per  man.  The  crop  acres  per  horse  are  low.  One  or  two  horses 
could  probably  be  dispensed  with  unless  they  are  desired  for  pleasure. 

*  The  crop  acres  per  animal  unit  give  a  basis  for  comparing  the 
amounts  of  manure  available  on  different  farms.  With  the  system 
followed  on  this  farm  there  is  about  3  tons  of  manure  per  year  for  each 
acre  of  crops.     This  is  much  above  the  average. 


SUMMARY   OF    THE   MOST    IMPORTANT  FACTORS  AFFECTING 

PROFITS    . 

The  most  common  ways  by  which  the  individual  farmer 
makes  more  than  the  average  are :  (1)  by  working  harder, 
(2)  by  choosing  a  region  and  farm  that  pays  better  than 
the  average,  (3)  by  having  a  better  organized  and  managed 
business,  (4)  by  forecasting  the  future,  and  buying  land 
or  other  property  or  raising  crops  or  animals  to  meet  future 
shortages.  The  man  who  sees  far  enough  ahead  to  raise 
colts  for  the  time  when  colts  will  bring  high  prices  is  doing 
a  good  public  service  as  well  as  making  a  good  profit  for 
himself. 


SOME  SUCCESSFUL   FARMS  563 

Survey  work  and  studies  of  successful  farms  indicate 
that  the  most  important  factors  in  the  organization  and 
management  of  the  farm  are :  (1)  size  of  business  (partic- 
ularly the  area  in  crops) ,  (2)  diversity  of  the  business,  and 
(3)  production  (crop  yields  and  production  per  animal). 

Very  few  farms  rank  well  in  all  these  points.  Some 
farms  are  large  enough,  some  are  diversified,  some  have 
good  crop  yields,  some  have  good  production  for  cows  or 
other  animals.  Most  farmers  have  a  hobby  that  is  over- 
done while  other  things  are  neglected.  It  requires 
good  judgment  to  keep  the  farm  development  properly 
balanced. 

If  a  farmer  gets  crop  yields  and  production  per  animal 
a  little  better  than  the  average  and  has  a  good-sized  farm 
and  diversified  business,  he  is  almost  certain  to  have  a 
profitable  farm. 

Ordinarily  there  should  be  three  or  four  important 
products  sold.  That  is,  three  or  four  specialties,  no  one 
of  which  is  neglected  on  account  of  the  others.  A  care- 
ful farmer  may  hope  for  crop  yields  a  fifth  better  than 
the  average  and  production  per  animal  a  half  better  than 
the  average.  With  these  conditions  and  a  good-sized  farm 
he  may  hope  for  a  labor  income  of  three  to  five  times  the 
average  after  he  gets  his  business  established. 

Good  crop  yields  may  be  the  result  of  having  a  better 
farm  than  the  average,  using  more  fertilizer,  or  farming 
better  in  other  respects.  Of  these  the  better  farm  is 
usually  the  cheapest  way  of  increasing  crops.  But  with 
a  better  soil  it  pays  to  farm  better  in  every  respect.  The 
larger  farm  may  be  secured  by  ownership  or  rental  accord- 
ing to  one's  capital. 

Other  minor  points  often  prevent  the  profits  from  rising 
as  high  as  they  might  go  if  the  entire  business  were  well 


564  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

balanced.  Occasionally  too  much  is  invested  in  buildings 
or  machinery  or  too  many  horses  or  men  are  kept,  or  any 
one  of  a  hundred  other  factors  may  be  wrong.  These 
mistakes  are  not  so  often  made  by  experienced  farmers  but 
are  nearly  always  made  by  persons  who  go  from  city  to 
country. 

Of  course  the  highest  profits  are  made  when  size, 
diversity,  and  good  production  are  combined  with  a  well- 
balanced  business  in  every  other  respect.  But  if  the  first 
four  points  are  good  a  mistake  in  having  an  extra  horse 
or  man  will  still  leave  a  profitable  farm,  although  not  as 
profitable  as  it  might  have  been. 

No  matter  how  profitable  a  farm  may  be  a  farmer  will 
not  prosper  if  the  family  expenses  are  out  of  proportion  to 
the  income.  Very  often  the  farmer  who  runs  the  most 
successful  farm  fails  to  accumulate  money  as  rapidly  as  a 
less  successful  farmer  who  saves  all  he  gets.  Failure  to 
accumulate  money  may  be  due  to  poor  farming,  too  ex- 
pensive living,  sickness,  or  other  misfortune.  Failures 
from  all  these  causes  are  usually  confused.  In  fact  the 
personal  factor  so  confuses  some  persons  that  they  at- 
tribute all  success  to  the  man.  The  success  of  a  farm  is 
primarily  dependent  on  the  factors  enumerated  above. 
But  success  of  an  individual  is  primarily  dependent  on 
the  relation  of  his  income  to  his  family  expense.  The 
highest  financial  success  comes  when  a  well-balanced^  suc- 
cessful farm  is  combined  with  economy  in  living. 

References 

Many  of  the  farms  that  have  been  written  up  in  various  maga- 
zines and  bulletins  are  really  not  making  much  above  in- 
terest on  the  capital  invested. 

A  number  of  profitable  farms,  also  farms  that  are  doing  well  with 
small  capital,  are  given  in  Bulletin  295,  pages  510  to  536 


SOME  SUCCESSFUL  FARMS  665 

of  the  Cornell  University  Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 
Ithaca,  New  York. 

A  number  of  successful  farms  are  given  in  Laboratory  Exercises 
in  Farm  Management,  by  Warren  and  Livermore,  pages 
50  to  62. 

A  very  successful  farm  of  a  city  man  who  went  to  farming  is 
described  in  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers'  Bulletin  432.  In  1909, 
the  income  due  to  the  labor  of  the  father  and  a  son  on  this 
farm  seems  to  have  been  about  $3500. 

A  very  successful  tenant  farm  in  New  Jersey  is  described  in 
Farmers'  Bulletin  472. 

A  successful  cotton  farm  that  appears  to  have  given  a  labor 
income  of  $2000  to  $3000  is  described  in  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr., 
Farmers'  Bulletin  364. 

A  successful  alfalfa  and  potato  farm  in  Ohio  is  described  in  Cir- 
cular 107  of  the  Ohio  Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 
Wooster,  Ohio.  The  man  who  rented  this  farm  paid  cash 
rent  of  about  6  per  cent,  and  made  a  labor  income  of  over 
$3000. 

So  far  as  the  writer  can  determine,  these  are  the  only  bulletins 
that  describe  farms  on  which  the  labor  income  is  as  high 
as  $2000. 

A  farm  that  is  interesting  because  of  the  fair  profit  on  a  small 
area  is  described  on  pages  7  to  16  of  Farmers'  Bulletin  325. 
This  man  made  a  labor  income  of  over  $1000  on  40  acres 
of  land  in  Nebraska.  With  large  farms  and  the  usual  types 
of  farming,  much  more  than  this  is  often  made  in  the  region, 
but  this  farm  is  making  a  very  large  income  for  its  size. 

A  very  successful  system  of  tenant  farming  in  Maryland  is  de- 
scribed in  Farmers'  Bulletin  437. 


56Q 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


TABLES  OF  PRICES  OF  FARM  PRODUCTS 

Table  80. — Average  Farm  Value  per  Head,  United  States, 

Jan.  11 


Horses 

Mules 

Milch 
Cows 

Other 
Cattle 

Swine 

Sheep 

1867   .  .  . 

$59.05 

$66.94 

$28.74 

$15.79 

$4.03 

$2.50 

1868   . 

54.27 

56.04 

26.56 

15.06 

3.29 

1.82 

1869   . 

62.57 

79.23 

29.15 

18.73 

4.65 

1.64 

1870   . 

67.43 

90.42 

32.70 

18.87 

5.80 

1.96 

Average 

60.83 

73.16 

29.29 

17.11 

4.44 

1.98 

1871   . 

71.14 

91.98 

33.89 

20.78 

5.61 

2.14 

1872   . 

67.41 

87.14 

29.45 

18.12 

4.01 

2.61 

1873   . 

66.39 

85.15 

26.72 

18.06 

3.67 

2.71 

1874   . 

65.15 

81.35 

25.63 

17.55 

3.98 

2.43 

1875   . 

61.10 

71.89 

25.74 

16.91 

4.80 

2.55 

Average 

66.24 

83.50 

28.29 

18.28 

4.41 

2.49 

1876   . 

57.29 

66.46 

25.61 

17.00 

6.00 

2.37 

1877   . 

55.83 

64.07 

25.47 

15.99 

5.66 

2.13 

1878   . 

56.63 

62.03 

25.74 

16.72 

4.85 

2.21 

1879   . 

52.36 

56.00 

21.71 

15.38 

3.18 

2.07 

1880   . 

54.75 

61.26 

23.27 

16.10 

4.28 

2.21 

Average 

55.37 

61.96 

24.36 

16.24 

4.79 

2.20 

1881   . 

58.44 

69.79 

23.95 

17.33 

4.70 

2.39 

1882   . 

58.53 

71.35 

25.89 

19.89 

5.97 

2.37 

1883   . 

70.59 

79.49 

30.21 

21.81 

6.75 

2.53 

1884   . 

74.64 

84.22 

31.37 

23.52 

5.57 

2.37 

1885   . 

73.70 

82.38 

29.70 

23.25 

5.02 

2.14 

Average 

67.18 

77.45 

28.22 

21.16 

5.60 

2.36 

1886   . 

71.27 

79.60 

27.40 

21.17 

4.26 

1.91 

1887   . 

72.15 

78.91 

26.08 

■  19.79 

4.48 

2.01 

1888   . 

71.82 

79.78 

24.65 

17.79 

4.98 

2.05 

1889   . 

71.89 

79.49 

23.94 

17.05 

5.79 

2.13 

1890   . 

68.84 

78.25 

22.14 

15.21 

4.72 

2.27 

Average 

71.19 

79.21 

24.84 

18.20 

4.85 

2.07 

1891   . 

67.00 

77.83 

21.62 

14.76 

4.15 

2.50 

1892   . 

65.01 

75.55 

21.40 

15.16 

4.60 

2.58 

1893   . 

61.22 

70.68 

21.75 

15:24 

6.41 

2.66 

1894   . 

47.83 

62.17 

21.77 

14.66 

5.98 

1.98 

1895   . 

36.29 

47.55 

21.97 

14.06 

4.97 

1.58 

Average 

55.47 

66.77 

21.70 

14.78 

5.22 

2.26 

•  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Yearbook,  1911. 


TABLES 


567 


Table  80.  —  Average  Farm  Value  per  Head,  United 
States,  Jan.  1. — Continued. 


Horses 

Mules 

Milch 
Cows 

Other 
Cattle 

Swine 

Sheep 

1896       .     .     . 

$33.07 

$45.29 

$22.55 

$15.86 

$4.35 

$1.70 

1897       .     .     . 

31.51 

41.66 

23.16 

16.65 

4.10 

1.82 

1898       .     .     . 

34.26 

43.88 

27.45 

20.92 

4.39 

2.46 

1899       .     .     . 

37.40 

44.96 

29.66 

22.79 

4.40 

2.75 

1900       .     .     . 

44.61 

53.55 

31.60 

24.97 

5.00 

2.93 

Average      .     . 

36.17 

45.87 

26.88 

20.24 

4.45 

2.33 

1901       .     .     . 

52.86 

63.97 

30.00 

19.93 

6.20 

2.98 

1902       .     .     . 

58.61 

67.61 

29.23 

18.76 

7.03 

2.65 

1903       .     .     . 

62.25 

72.49 

30.21 

18.45 

7.78 

2.63 

1904       .     .     . 

67.93 

78.88 

29.21 

16.32 

6.15 

2.59 

1905       .     .     . 

70.37 

87.18 

27.44 

15.15 

5.99 

2.82 

Average      .     . 

62.40 

74.03 

29.22 

17.72 

6.63 

2.73 

1906       .     .     . 

80.72 

98.31 

29.44 

15.85 

6.18 

3.54 

1907       .     .     . 

93.51 

112.16 

31.00 

17.10 

7.62 

3.84 

1908       .     .     . 

93.41 

107.76 

30.67 

16.89 

6.05 

3.88 

1909       .     .     . 

95.64 

107.84 

32.36 

17.49 

6.55 

3.43 

1910       .     .     . 

108.19 

119.84 

35.79 

19.41 

9.14 

4.08 

Average      .     . 

94.29 

109.18 

31.85 

17.35 

7.11 

3.75 

1911       .     .     . 

111.46 

125.62 

39.97 

20.54 

9.37 

3.91 

1912       .     .     . 

105.94 

120.51 

39.39 

21.20 

8.00 

3.46 

568 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


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May 

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TABLES 


581 


Hogs 
Fair  to 

Good 

Packing 

Cincinnati 

—    i-H 

1" 

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t>.  lO  lO 

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6.44 
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St.  Louis 

per  100  lb. 
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INDEX 


Aceounts 428,  440    Beans,  cost  of  hauling 


Animal  records 217 

Books  for 477 

Bookkeeping 431 

Closing 491 

Cost 437 

Cost,  complete  set  of 440 

Cost,  details  of  methods 477 

Cost,  with  fertilizer 163 

Cost,  study  of  results 443 

Cost,  with  crops  and  animals 438 

Double  entry 479 

Inventory 432 

Milk  records 217 

Receipts  and  expenses 436 

Single  entry 479 

Tenant  farm 493 

With  persons 431 

Work  reports 442,  481 

Advertising 96,  426 

Value  of  neighborhood 99 

Agricultural  credit 295,  298,  299 

Agricultural  survey  record 553 

Alfalfa,  account  with 444 

Distribution  of  labor  on 110 

Soil  requirements 48 

Alkali 185 

Animal  unit,  defined 210 

Per  acre.... 209,  211,  273,  540,   561 
Animal  records.     See  Accounts. 

Apples,  account  with    466 

Climate  and  soil  for 49 

Cost  of  hauling 72 

Distribution  of  labor  on 118 

Over-  and  under-production 84 

Profit  per  hour  of  labor 150 

Used  on  the  farm 24,  40 

Auctions 426 

Back-to-the-land  movement 29 

Bacteria  of  the  soil 184,  195 

Barley,  cost  of  hauling 72 

Prices  by  months 579 

Prices  by  states 574 

Prices  by  years 568 

Shrinkage  of 418 


.72 


Prices  by  months 580 

Used  on  farm 24,  40 

Beef  cattle,  comparative  prices  . . .  59,  82 
Food   requirements  for  pound   of 

gain 59 

Labor  on 119 

Prices  by  months 581 

Prices  by  years 571 

Regions  for  production 59 

Used  on  farm 25 

Blue-grass,  climate  and  soil  for 49 

Bookkeeping.     See  Accounts. 

Buckwheat,  account  with 446 

Cost  of  hauling 72 

Prices  by  states 574 

Prices  by  years 568 

Used  on  the  farm 24 

Buildings,  arrangement  of 397 

Cost  of 261,  291,  295,  396 

Relation  to  the  farm 394 

Value  of,  in  different  regions 272 

Butter,  comparative  prices 65,  82 

Prices  by  months 582 

Prices  by  states 576 

Prices  by  years 571 

Regions  for  production  of 63 

Used  on  the  farm 24,  25,  40 

Butter-fat  tests 219 

Cabbages,  cost  per  acre 148 

Distribution  of  labor  on 118 

Canada,  advantages  of 513 

Capital  and  profits 291 

And  size  of  farm 261 

And  type  of  farming 94,  152,  295 

Cash  purchases 295 

Distribution  of 294 

Efficient  use  of 94,  260,  295,  561 

Mortgages 291,  297 

Per  farm 291 

Period  of  investment 95 

Ways  of  farming  with  small   26,  27,  303 

Cato's  advice  on  buying  a  farm 530 

Advice  on  buildings 395 

Advices  on  intensive  methods  . . .  .158 


585 


586 


INDEX 


Cattle.     See  Beef  cattle,  Dairying, 
and  Cows. 

Checks 299 

Cheese,  prices  by  months 582 

Regions  for  production  of 66 

Chemical  analysis  of  soils 505 

Chickens.     See  Hens. 

Child  labor  on  the  farm 9,  127,  206 

China,  proportion  of  farmers  in 30 

Climate  and  type  of  farming 44 

Methods  of  study  of 496 

Clover,  cost  per  acre 146,  148 

Prices  of  seed  by  months 581 

Soil  for 48 

Colleges,  farms  for 534 

Colts.     See  Horses. 

Commission,  selling  on 425 

Contracts  for  land 531 

Corn,  climate  and  soil  for 44,  77 

Comparative  prices 53,  81,  82,  83 

Cost  of  hauling 72 

Distribution  of  labor  on 112 

Freight  rates  on 56 

Prices  by  months 578 

Prices  by  states 53,  574 

Prices  by  years 568,  571 

Relation  of  production  to  value  .  .    78 
Shrinkage  of 417 

Corn-silage.     See  Silage. 

Cost  accounting.     See  Accounts. 

Cost  of  buildings 261,  396 

Of  green  manure 192 

Of  horse  labor 344 

Of  living  on  farms 21-26 

Of  living,  ways  of  decreasing  the.   34 

Of  machinery 357 

Of  milk 175 

Of  producing  crops 146,  148,  473 

Of  production  and  use  of  products .    55 

Cotton,  cost  of  hauling 72 

Climate  and  soil  for 45 

Distribution  of  labor 112 

Farms,  number  of 106 

Prices  by  months 580 

Prices  by  years 568 

Relation  of  production  to  value. . .    78 
Unskilled  labor  for 12 

Cows,  account  with 446 

Depreciation  on 231 

For  home  use 92 

Manure  produced  by 198 

Prices  by  states 576 

Prices  by  years 566 

Production  by  ages 221 

Production  for  profit 169,  180,  220 

Production  per  feed  unit 217 

Size  of  and  profits 222 


Cows,  testing 217 

See  also  Dairying  and  Beef  cattle. 

Credit 295,  298,  299 

Crop-acres,     per     worker     and     per 

horse 254,  273,  561 

Importance  in  choosing  a  farm  . .  .517 
Per  animal  unit 

209,  211,  273,  540,  561 

Crop  rotation 402 

And  diversified  farming 107 

Crops,  adaptation  to  conditions 154 

Land  costs  and  other  costs  of 146 

Crop  yields  and  prices 76 

And  size  of  farm 169,  267 

Not  decreasing 183 

On  successful  farms 167 

Variations  in 77 

Cucumbers,  cost  per  acre 148 

Dairying,  advantages  of 127 

Cheap  feed  for 203 

Costs  of 175 

Diversified  farming  with 128 

Feed  costs  and  other  costs 143 

Labor  distribution  in 122 

Number  of  farms 106 

Profits  in 127,  537 

Regions  for 63 

Size  of  farms  for 276,  278 

Successful  farm 537 

See  also  Cows. 

Daybook 478 

Deeds 531 

Depreciation  on  live  stock 231 

On  machinery 356 

Distribution  of  labor.     See  Labor. 

Diversified  farming 90,  104 

Drainage,  importance  of  in  choosing 

a  farm 522 

Dry  farming,  size  of  farms  for 286 

Education  and  profits 305 

Efficiency  in  use  of  capital  94,  260,  561 

In  u.se  of  horses 109,  255,  346,  561 

In  use  of  labor 

109,  250,  330,  340,  561 
In  use  of  machinery  ....  109,  257,  561 

Eggs,  comparative  prices 67,  81,  82 

Prices  by  months 583 

Prices  by  states 576 

Prices  by  years 571 

Records , 221 

Regions  for  production 66 

Used  on  farm 24,  25,  40 

Engines,  place  of,  on  the  farm 349 

Equipment,  account  with 450 

Capital  invested  in 257,  291,  295 


INDEX 


587 


Equipment,  costs 357,  476 

Depreciation  on 356 

Duty  of 359 

Effect  on  population 31,  280,  284 

Efficient  use  of 109,  257,  561 

Maintenance  of 355 

Value  of  in  dififerent  regions 272 

Erosion 184 

Evaporation  in  different  regions  ....  500 
Extensive  and  intensive  farming  .  .  .  143 

Families,  size  of,  on  farms. .  .  .8,  23,  268 

Farm,  account  with 452 

As  a  home 35,  36 

Buying 531 

Choice  of  a 494,  517 

Colonies 13 

Defined 239 

Equipment.     See  Equipment. 

Families,  size  of 8,  23,  268 

House.  See  House. 
Labor.  See  Labor. 
Land,  increasing  value  of 

18,  28,  291,  312,  513 

Managers 343 

Manure.     See  Manure. 

Products  used  at  home 24,  92 

Profits.     See  Profits. 

Size  of 239 

Farming,  types   of.     See    Types   of 
farming. 

Farmers,  personal  characteristics  of 

1-14,  20 

Farmstead,  layout 388 

Location  of 374 

Feeding  animals 212 

Feeding  systems  and  cropping  sys- 
tems   207,  414 

Feed  units 216 

Fields  and  size  of  farm 262 

Distance  to 264,  368 

Layout  of 365 

Size  &nd  shape  of 365 

Fences 378,  385 

Fertility.     See  Soil. 

Fertilizers 183 

Interpretation  of  tests  of 160 

Relation  to  the  value  of  the  crops 

157,  173 
Vs.  manure 200 

Fertilizing  value  of  food  and  manure 

187,  197 

Flax,  cost  of  hauling 72 

Prices  by  months 579 

Food  furnished  by  the  farm  .  .24,  40,  92 
Purchased  by  the  farmer 25 

Fruit  for  home  use 24,  92 


y 


Garden 92 

Account  with 468 

Arrangement  of 391 

Products  of 24,  40,  92 

Grass.     See  Hay. 

Green  manure 188 

Cost  of 192 

Hail 503 

Hay,  account  with 452 

Climate  and  soil  for 47 

Comparative  prices 53,  83 

Cost  of  hauling 72 

Cost  per  acre 146,  148 

Fertilizers  for 163 

Prices  by  months 579 

Prices  by  states 574 

Prices  by  years 568 

See  also  Clover,  Timothy,  Alfalfa. 

Shrinkage  of 419 

Hemp,  cost  of  hauling 72 

Hens,  account  with 454 

Cheap  feed  for 203 

Depreciation  on 235 

For  home  use 24,  25,  92 

Labor  on 121 

Manure  produced  by 198 

Prices  of  chickens  by  states 576 

See  also  Eggs. 
Hired-man,  opportunities  of. .  26, 304, 307 
See  Labor. 

Hogging  oflf  com 188 

Hogs,  as  by-products 58 

Comparative  prices 82 

Cost  of  hauling 72 

Depreciation  on 235 

Food  requirements  for  pound  gain  61 

For  home  use 25,  58,  92 

Freight  rates  on 56 

Labor  on 119 

Manure  produced  by 198 

Over-  and  under-production 87 

Prices  by  months 581 

Prices  by  states 55,  576 

Prices  by  years 566,  571 

Regions  for 55,  70 

Homestead  act 241 

Honey  used  on  the  farm 24 

Hops,  cost  of  hauling 72 

Prices  by  months 580 

Horses,  account  with 458 

Comparative  prices 83 

Depreciation  on 233 

Efficient  use  of 109,  255,  346,  561 

Labor,  cost 344,  475 

Limestone  soils  for 51 

Manure  produced  by 198 


688 


INDEX 


Horses,  method  of  charging  labor  of  487 

Number  raised 63 

Over-  and  under-production 87 

Prices  by  classes  of 583 

Prices  by  months 583 

Prices  by  states 576 

Prices  by  years 566 

Raising 88,  205 

Regions  for 62,  88,  205 

Size  of,  and  price 226 

Houses,  desirable  characteristics.  . .  .399 

Humus.     See  Organic  matter. 

Income.     See  Profits  and  Labor  income. 
Intensity  of  stocking 

209,  211,  273,  540,  561 

Intensive  farming 143 

Interest,  account  with 460 

On  time  purchases 296 

Irrigated  farms,  size  of 276 

Irrigation  in  humid  regions 160 

Investment,  farm  land  as  an 

18,  28,  291,  312.  513 

Journal 478 

Labor,  account  with 462 

Affecting  type  of  farming 96 

Ages  of  farm 27,  304 

As  a  training  for  children 9 

Cost  and  other  costs 146 

Cost  of  horse 344,  475 

Distribution  of 109 

Efficient  use  of  .  109,  250,  330,  340,  561 
Efficient  use  of  horse 

109,  255,  346,  561 
Efficient  use  of,  and  size  of  farm.  .250 

Foreign  born 11 

Hours  of 339 

Number  of  farms  with 239 

Number  of  workers  per  farm 239 

Opportunity  as  a  hired-man 

26,  304,  307 

Skilled  and  unskilled 11 

Why  scarce 330 

Winter  work 337 

Labor  income,   compared  with   city 

wages 16 

Defined 15 

Made  by  farmers 16 

Method  of  calculating 559 

Lambs,  winter 62 

Land  cost  of  crops 146 

Not  limited 144 

Prices 18,  28,  291,  312,  513 

Values  and  typ«  of  farming 93 

Landlords,  opportunities  of 28,  321 


Layout 262,  365,  388,  518 

Ledger 477 

Life  insurance 315 

Lime,  forms  of 196 

Requirment  of  animals 51 

Requirement  of  crops 48 

Shortage  of,  in  soil 196 

Live  stock,  amount  to  keep 

209,  211,  273,  540,  561 

Capital  invested  in 291 ,  295 

Capital  required  for. 94 

Farms,  number  of 106 

Produced  on  cheap  feed 203 

Machinery.     See  Equipment. 
Management  of  equipment.      See 

Equipment. 
Management  of  horses.     See  Horses. 
Management  of  labor.     See  Labor. 

Managers 343 

Mangels,  profits  from 179 

Manufacturing  on  the  farm 131 

Manure,  amount  produced 187,  197 

Methods  of  charging 485 

Methods  of  handling 199 

Organic  matter  in 187 

Value  of 197 

Manure  spreader 199 

Marketing .262,  416 

Cost  of 35 

Cost  of  hauling 71 

Markets 524 

Distance  to,  and  type  of  farming  .  71 

Special  demands  of 90 

Supplying  the  local 91 

Map  of  farm 528 

Milk,  cost  of  hauling 73 

Cost  of  producing 175 

Records 217 

Regions  for 66 

Used  on  farm 24,  25,  40 

See  also  Dairying. 

Mortgaged  farms 291,  297,  303 

Mules.     See  Horses. 

Depreciation  on 234 

Prices  by  states 576 

Prices  by  years 566 

Negroes,  size  of  farms  of 270 

Nitrogen  from  the  air 195 

Losses  from  the  soil 185 

Nurseries,  number  of 106 

Oats,  account  with 464 

Climate  and  soil  for 46 

Comparative  prices 53,  81,  82,  83 

Cost  of  hauling 72 


INDEX 


589 


Oata,  Distribution  of  labor  on 114 

Prices  by  months 578 

Prices  by  states 53,  574 

Prices  by  years 568,  571 

Profit  f)er  hour  of  labor 150 

Shrinkage  of 418 

Orchard,  account  with 466 

Organic  matter,  importance  of 186 

Of  food  and  manure 187 

Results  of  exhaustion 184,  185 

Ways  of  maintaining 186 

Over-production 33,  83 

Peanuts,  cost  of  hauling 72 

Pasture,  cheap  feed 51 

Permanent  v».  rotated 386 

Over-grazing 208 

Pasturing  off  crops 188 

Phosphorus,  shortage  in  soil ....  196,  511 
Pliny's  advice  on  intensive  farming.  .  158 
Population,    cause    of    decrease    on 

farms 31,  280,  284 

Pork.     See  Hogs. 

Potassium  in  the  soil 196 

Potatoes,  climate  and  soil  for 47 

Comparative  prices 53 

Ck)st  of  hauling 72 

Cost  per  acre 148 

Distribution  of  labor  on 118 

Prices  in  different  regions 53 

Prices  by  months 579 

Prices  by  states 574 

Prices  by  years 568 

Relation  of  production  to  value ....  78 

Shrinkage  of 420 

Used  on  the  farm 24,  40 

Poultry,  prices  by  states 576 

See  also  Hens. 

Prices 33 

Effect  of  transportation  on 52 

By  months 578 

By  states 53,  574 

By  years 81,  566 

Related  to  yields 76 

Variations  in  relative 81 

Productive  work  tinits 350,  561 

Profit  and  size  of  farm 243 

In  farming 14-29,  37 

Per  acre  vt.  profit  p)er  farmer  146,  242 

Sharing 342 

Ways  of  measuring 15,  143 

Protein  in  feeds 212 

Purchases,  cash  vs.  time 295 

Pure-bred  stock 209,  211,  214,  227 

Rainfall 498 

Rations,  balanced 212 


Redtop,  soil  for 49 

Region,  choice  of 494 

Rented    farms.      See    Tenant     and 
Tenure. 

Retailing 424 

Rice,  cost  of  hauling 72 

Number  of  farms 106 

Prices  by  months 580 

Roads 524 

Root  crops,  profit  on , 92,  179 

Rotation  of  crops.      See  Crop  rota- 
tion. 
Rural  population,  cause  of   decrease 

31,  280,  284 

Character  of 20 

Rye,  cost  of  hauling 72 

Prices  by  months 578 

Prices  by  states 574 

Prices  by  years 568 

Shrinkage  of 418 

Schools,  farms  for 534 

Score-card  for  farms 526 

Season,  length  of 503 

Sheep,  as  scavengers 61,  205 

Comparative  prices 82 

Depreciation  on 235 

Food  requirements  for  pound  gain .  61 

Labor  on 119 

Manure  produced  by 198 

Prices  by  months 582 

Prices  by  states 576 

Prices  by  years 566,  571 

Regions  for 61 

Shrinkage  of  farm  products 417 

Silage,  as  summer  feed 179 

Compared  with  hay 179,  229 

Silo,  number  of  cows  for  a 174 

Size  of  animals  and  profits 222 

Size  of  farm  families 8,  23,  268 

Size  of  farms 239 

And  boys  leaving 268 

And  crop  yields 267 

And  crop   yields,  relative   impor- 
tance of 167,  169 

And  economy  in  buying  and  selling 

262 
And  efficiency  in  use  of  capital  . .  .  .260 
And  efficiency  in  use  of  horses. .  .  .255 

And  efficiency  in  use  of  labor 250 

And  efficiency  in  use  of  machinery 

257 

And  profits 243 

And  size  of  fields 262 

And  type  of  farming 270 

Average  size 240 

Best  sice 247,  254,  289 


690 


INDEX 


Size  of  farms,  in  China 30 

In  different  regions 270 

Of  negroes 270 

Size  of  fields 262,  365 

Soil  and  type  of  farming 44 

Chemical  analysis  of 505 

Importance  of  fertility 

183,  505,  517,  521 

Maintenance  of 183 

Maps 505 

Soiling  system 173,  177 

Special  vs.  diversified  farming 104 

Steers,  age  for  selling 61 

Food  requirement  for  pound  of  gain 

59 

Regions  for 59 

Storage  of  farm  products 417 

Successful  farms 134,  535 

Survey  record 553 

Swine.     See  Hogs. 

Taxes 525 

Tenant,  opportunities  aa  a 27,  309 

Tenure,  forms  of 313,  321 

Forma  of,  and  profits 327 

Timothy,  account  with 452 

Climate  and  soil  for 47 

Cost  of  hauling 72 

Cost  per  acre 146,  148 

Fertilizers  for 163 

Prices  by  months 579 

Prices  of  seed  by  months 581 

Profit  per  hour  of  labor 150 

See  also  Hay. 

Tobacco,  cost  of  hauling 72 

Prices  by  years 568 

Topography 44,  50,  518 

Transportation  and  typie  of  farming .   51 

Truck  crops,  regions  for 68 

Size  of  farms  for 275 


Truck  crops,  soils  for 50 

Type  of  farming 43 

And  capital 94,  295 

And  climate  and  soil 44 

And  distance  to  market 71 

And  labor 96 

And  land  values 93 

And  market  demand  and  supply . .    76 

And  neighbors 98 

And  transportation 51 

And  weeds,  insects,  deseases 97 

DiflSculty  of  changing 100 

Diversified  vs.  specialized 104 

In  different  regions 141 

On  successful  farms 133,  535 

Vegetable   matter.     See   Organic 

matter. 
Vegetables,  cost  of  hauling 72 

Wages  of  farm  labor 26,  330 

Water  supply,  importance  of 523 

Weather 497 

Risk  and  intensive  methods 159 

Weeds  as  green  manure 194 

Wheat,  account  with 466 

Cost  of  hauling 72 

Comparative  prices 53,  81,  82 

Prices  by  months 578 

Prices  by  states 574 

Prices  by  years 568,  571 

Shrinkage  of 418 

Used  on  farm 24 

Winds 502 

Winter  work 337 

Wood,  used  on  farm 24,  40 

Wool,  cost  of  hauling 72 

Prices  by  months 582 

Work  report 442,  481 

Work  units 350,  561 


'HE   following    pages    contain    advertisements    of 
books  by  the  same  author  or  on  kindred  subje£b. 


BY  THE  SAME  AUTHOR 


Warren's  Elements  of  Agriculture 

By  G.  F.  WARREN,  Professor  of  Farm  Management  and 
Farm  Crops,  New  York  State  College  of  Agriculture  at  Cor- 
nell University 

Cloth,  I2m0f  4^6  pages,  $i.io  net 

Written  by  Professor  G.  F.  Warren,  who  is  in  charge  of  the  Department  of 
Farm  Management  and  Farm  Crops  in  the  New  York  State  College  of  Agri- 
culture, Cornell  University,  an  authority  on  questions  pertaining  to  practical 
agriculture. 

Professor  Warren  is,  moreover,  a  farmer.  He  grew  up  on  a  farm  in  the  mid- 
dle West  and  is  living  at  the  present  time  on  a  farm  of  three  hundred  and 
eighteen  acres,  which  he  supervises  in  connection  with  his  work  at  the  Univer- 
sity. 

The  "  Elements  of  Agriculture  "  is  a  text  that  does  not  "  talk  down  "  to  the 
pupil.  It  gives  agriculture  rank  beside  physics,  mathematics,  and  the  languages 
as  a  dignified  subject  for  the  course  of  study. 

In  Warren's  "  Elements  of  Agriculture  "  there  is  no  waste  space.  It  is  writ- 
ten with  the  ease  that  characterizes  a  writer  at  home  in  his  subject,  and  it  is 
written  in  a  style  pedagogically  correct.  The  author  has  been  a  teacher  of  high 
school  bojfs  and  girls  and  knows  how  to  present  his  subject  to  them. 

Experts  in  the  teaching  of  agriculture  the  country  over  have  been  unanimous 
in  praise  of  the  text. 

Mr.  J.  E.  Blair,  Supt.  of  Schools,  Corsicana,  Texas  : 

"  An  examination  of  Warren's  '  Elements  of  Agriculture  '  convinces  me  that 
it  is  a  book  of  uncommon  merit  for  secondary  schools  as  well  as  for  the  private 
student.  It  is  thoroughly  scientific  in  matter,  and  is  written  in  an  attractive 
style,  that  cannot  fail  to  please  as  well  as  instruct." 

Supt.  E.  S.  Smith,  Whiting,  Iowa  : 

"  I  am  very  much  pleased  with  Warren's  '  Elements  of  Agfriculture."  In  my 
opinion  it  is  the  only  book  on  the  market  that  presents  the  work  of  agriculture 
suitably  for  high  schools ;  too  many  books  are  too  simple  and  do  not  give 
enough  work ;  a  book  for  high  schools  must  be  more  than  a  primer." 


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NEWEST  ADDITIONS  TO   THE  RURAL  SCIENCE  SERIES 

Edited  by  Professor  L.  H.  BAILEY,  Director  of  the  New  York 
State  School  of  Agriculture  at  Cornell  University 


Sheep  Farming 

By  JOHN   A.  CRAIG  and  F.  R.  MARSHALL 

Illustrated.     Cloth,  izmo,  $/.jo  -mt 

This  book  deals  with  sheep  husbandry  as  a  phase  of  intensive  farming. 
Recognizing  that  it  is  Hkely  to  be  used  by  persons  unfamiliar  with  sheep, 
the  authors  have  worked  from  the  standpoint  of  the  producer  of  the  market 
stock  rather  than  from  the  standpoint  of  the  professional  breeder.  The 
various  breeds  are  discussed  in  such  a  way  as  to  enable  the  reader  to  select 
the  kind  that  is  most  likely  to  do  well  under  his  conditions  and  to  acquaint 
him  with  the  care  it  is  accustomed  to  and  needs.  The  management  of  the 
flock  in  the  fall,  winter,  spring,  and  summer  seasons,  the  formation  of  the 
flock,  the  selection  of  foundation  stock,  and  the  means  of  maintaining  a 
high  standard  of  flock  efficiency  are  all  discussed  in  subsequent  chapters. 

Principles  of  Fruit  Growing 

By  Professor  L.  H.  BAILEY 

New  edition.     Cloth,  i2mo,  $i.^o  net 

Since  the  original  publication  of  this  book,  in  1897,  it  has  gone  through 
many  editions.  The  progress  of  fruit  growing  in  the  meantime  has  been 
very  marked  and  it  has  been  necessary  to  completely  rewrite  the  work. 
The  present  issue  of  it  brings  the  accounts  of  the  new  practices  and  discov- 
eries as  they  relate  to  fruit  growing  up  to  date.  All  of  the  text  and  practi- 
cally all  of  the  illustrations  are  new. 


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RURAL  SCIENCE  SERIES  —  Continued 

Fruit  Insects 

By  M.  V.  SLINGERLAND  and  C.  R.  CROSBY 

Illustrated.     Cloth,  rsmo,  $r.jo  net 

This  is  a  practical  account  of  the  principal  insects  in  this  country  which 
attack  the  different  kinds  of  fruits  —  trees,  fruits,  small  fruits,  cranberries, 
grapes,  and  the  like.  It  presents  a  full  but  brief  outline  life  history  of  the 
leading  insects,  together  with  the  methods  of  control. 


Milk  and  Its  Products 

By  HENRY  H.  WING,  Professor  of  Dairy  Husbandry  in 
Cornell  University 

Nrw  revised  edition.     IVith  new  illustrations.     Cloth,  rzmo,  $1.50  net 

The  revolution  in  dairy  practice,  brought  about  by  the  introduction  of  the 
centrifugal  cream  separator  and  the  Babcock  test  for  fat,  by  a  more  definite 
knowledge  regarding  the  various  fermentations  that  so  greatly  influence 
milk,  and  the  manufacture  of  its  products,  have  demanded  the  publication 
of  a  book  that  shall  give  to  the  dairyman,  and  particularly  to  the  dairy  stu- 
dent, in  simple,  concise  form,  the  principles  underlying  modern  dairy 
practice.  Such  has  been  Professor  Wing's  purpose  in  this  work.  This  is 
not  a  new  edition  of  the  author's  very  successful  volume  published  under 
the  same  title  many  years  ago ;  it  is,  in  reality,  an  entirely  new  book,  hav- 
ing been  wholly  reset  and  enlarged  by  the  addition  of  new  matter,  both  text 
and  illustrations.  The  author's  aim  has  been  at  all  times  to  give  the 
present  state  of  knowledge  as  supported  by  the  weight  of  evidence  and  the 
opinions  of  those  whose  authority  is  highest. 


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RURAL  SCIENCE  SERIES  —  Continued 

Cooperation  in  Agriculture 

By  G.  HAROLD  POWELL 

Illustrated,     Cloth,  istno,  $i.jo  net 

This  book  deals  with  the  general  principles  of  cooperation.  How  to 
organize  cooperative  societies,  how  to  finance  them,  simple  organizations 
and  constitutional  documents,  by-laws,  and  general  advice  as  to  the  admin- 
istration of  the  associations  or  societies  are  all  considered.  The  author 
describes  at  some  length  the  most  famous  organizations,  such  as  those 
which  are  handling  citrus  fruits  in  California,  the  farmers'  grain  elevators 
systems,  and  the  present  cooperation  in  the  creamery  and  butter  business. 
It  is,  in  other  words,  a  practical  guide  for  those  who  desire  to  organize 
cooperative  societies  and  who  wish  to  escape  the  usual  pitfalls. 

Farm  Forestry 

By  E.  G.  CHEYNEY 

Illustrated.     Cloth,  i2mo,  $i.jo  net 

This  book  deals  with  the  place  of  the  wood  lot  or  farm  forest  in  the  scheme 
of  farming,  with  the  planting,  care,  and  harvesting  of  timber  on  lands,  with 
the  different  species  of  trees  that  may  be  used,  their  relations  or  alssocia- 
tions  in  a  forest  plantation,  the  rate  of  growth,  the  profits  to  be  expected 
and  the  principal  difficulties  that  are  usually  encountered.  It  is  profusely 
illustrated. 

Forage  Crops  for  the  South 

I  ByS.  M.  TRACY      ■ 

Illustrated.     Cloth,  /2mo,  $i.jo  net 

Professor  Tracy  has  had  long  experience  in  Southern  agriculture,  both  in 
application  and  in  teaching.  He  was  formerly  Professor  of  Agriculture  in 
the  Mississippi  Agricultural  College,  and  now  conducts  a  branch  station  or 
farm  for  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.  He  is  a  botanist  of 
note  and  has  traveled  extensively  in  the  South  as  a  collector.  His  book  is 
not  only  authentic,  but  practical.  In  it  is  contained  a  discussion  of  all 
kinds  of  plants  arid  crops  adapted  to  the  Southern  States  for  fodder,  soiling, 
pasturing,  and  hay.    The  text  is  abundantly  illustrated. 


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NEWEST  ADDITIONS  TO  THE  RURAL  TEXTBOOK  SERIES 

Edited  by  Professor  L.  H.  BAILEY,  Director  of  the  New  York  State 
School  of  Agriculture  at  Cornell  University 


Manures  and  Fertilizers 

By  H.  J.  WHEELER,  Ph.D.,  D.Sc,  Formerly  Director  of 

the  Rhode  Island  Experiment  Station. 

Illustrated.     Cloth,  i2mo.     Preparing 

The  clear  and  unusually  full  discussion  of  the  practical  utilization  of  manures  and 
fertilizers  of  all  kinds,  and  of  their  relations  to  the  plant  and  to  the  soil,  makes  this 
book  not  only  an  excellent  text  for  college  students,  but  also  one  which  will  be  gen- 
erally welcomed  by  all  up-to-date  agriculturists.  All  the  animal  manures,  litter,  and 
waste  nitrogeneous  materials  of  eveiy  sort  are  discussed.  A  helpful  feature  for  the 
student  is  the  extended  treatment  of  the  availability  of  organic  nitrogen  and  of  the 
organisms  contained  in  barnyard  manure  which  give  rise  to  the  various  fermentations 
taking  place  therein.  The  well-known  and  also  the  new^  nitrogenous  manures  such 
as  calcium  cyanamid  and  calcium  nitrate,  are  considered  in  detail.  The  chapters  de- 
voted to  the  potash  salts,  phosphates,  lime,  magnesia,  soda,  gypsum,  iron,  and  man- 
ganese are  exceptionally  complete,  and  chlorin,  sulfur,  silica,  carbon  disulfid,  toluene, 
and  other  substances  exerting  catalytic  and  other  effects  are  described.  Much  of  the 
material  in  this  book  which  will  be  new  to  students  and  other  readers  has  suggested 
itself  to  the  author  in  the  course  of  twenty-two  years  of  continuous  research. 


Com  Crops 


By  E.  G.  MONTGOMERY,  Professor  of  Farm  Crops  in  the 
College  of  Agriculture  at  Cornell  University. 

Preparing 

This  is  a  textbook  on  com  and  the  sorghum  crops,  including  the  ^ain  sorghums,  the 
sweet  sorghums  for  syrup  or  forage,  and  the  broom  corns.  In  it  plant  structures, 
physiology,  and  the  other  technical  phases  of  the  subject  are  separated  from  the 
more  practical  phases  which  might  be  classed  as  cultural  methods.  Hence,  the  en- 
tire book  is  adapted  to  use  as  a  text  in  an  advanced  course,  and  the  treatment  of  cul- 
tural methods  is  adapted  to  use  in  more  elementary  courses.  The  book  is  also  an 
excellent  handbook  for  farmers  and  others  interested  in  the  production  or  handling 
of  com  or  sorghums. 


Animal  Husbandry 


By  MERRITT  W.  HARPER,  Assistant  Professor  of  Ani- 
mal Husbandry  in  the  New  York  State  College. 

Illustrated.     Cloth,  i2mo.    Preparing 

This  is  a  simple,  concrete  presentation  of  the  essential  facts  concerning  farm  animals, 
adapted  for  use  m  secondary  schools. 


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